Not seeing the forest for the trees? The environmental effectiveness of forest certification in Sweden

Forest certification can be conceived as one of many rapidly growing non-state market driven (NSMD) modes of governance. The environmental effectiveness of forest certification is oftentimes evaluated by indicators such as stringency of standards, degree of participation by key stakeholders, certified area, etc. In political science, forest certification as an NSMD governance arrangement is usually evaluated in terms of the quality of the decision-making procedures (input legitimacy) rather than for its problem solving capacity, i.e. its environmental performance or effectiveness. We conceptualize environmental effectiveness as a function of a standard's environmental stringency and the area covered by the standard, the latter dependent on the degree of social acceptance. Accordingly, the environmental effectiveness of different certification schemes ought to be evaluated taking both the standard stringency and the area certified into account. The forest certification process in Sweden illustrates how forestry history and regional differences affect the development, acceptance and adoption of different certification schemes. Industrial and Northern forestry owners favour the NGO led Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) standards whereas Southern small-scale private forest owners preferred to develop an alternative scheme the Programme for Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC). We demonstrate that there is a bifurcated geographical coverage of the two certification schemes along a north–south divide coupled with a similarity in standard stringency and a high degree of acceptance in their different areas of dominance. Both forest certification schemes display a similar degree of environmental effectiveness — but in different parts of the country and for different types of ownership.     

Does forest certification enhance livelihood conditions? Empirical evidence from forest management in Kilwa District,Tanzania

The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) forest management certification standards have been promoted to contribute to community livelihood conditions. However, little has been done to evaluate it quantitatively. Employing theory of change, this study assesses and compares empirical evidence of the influence of the FSC forest management certification approach to enhance livelihood conditions in Kilwa, Tanzania, by using economic valuation methods and governance indicators. This is achieved through a comparative study of villages with certified community forests (FSC) under community based forest management and those without (non-FSC). Results show that annual average household forest income from FSC-certified forests is significantly higher than that of households in non-FSC-certified forests. With reference to rule compliance as an indicator of good governance, implementation of forest bylaws in villages managing FSC-certified forests is significantly more effective than villages in non-FSC-certified forests. These findings provide an insight into the influence of forest certification in enhancing livelihood conditions and that the incorporation of FSC standards into forest policies may lead to more enhancement of livelihood conditions. These findings serve as a baseline for further research on the effects of forest certification at both spatial and temporal scales.     

Effects of participatory forest management on livelihood capitals of the community in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh

In Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, we surveyed 80 households to observe the effects of participatory forestry (PF) on the livelihood of local participants. We analyzed the effects on livelihood capitals to compare in two ways: (1) before and after participation, and (2) participants and non-participants. In Cox’s Bazar, there were some significant changes regarding income sources, but annual income was little changed after participation in participatory forestry. Literacy (about 10 % after participation) and mobile phone ownership (75 %) were significantly higher than before. Housing conditions were better (brick walls: 7.5 %; sun-grass roof: 70 %) than those of non-participants (brick walls: 0 %; sun-grass roof: 77.5 %). PF ensured legal rights on forest lands for participants, while non-participants were illegally living on public forestland. However, expenses were considerably higher than income; people were still struggling with poverty and many of them suffered from malnutrition. This ultimately put pressure on all capital. People had redistributed their available capital to cope with adversity, and there was a trend toward involvement in economic activities other than forests. Our study found that social capital was more influenced by PF more than other capitals. Due to the involvement with the PF program, people were feeling much more secure, women had elevated status, and social relationships became stronger.     

The impact of climate change on forest fire danger rating in China’s boreal forest

The Great Xing’an Mountains boreal forests were focused on in the northeastern China.The simulated future climate scenarios of IPCC SRES A2a and B2a for both the baseline period of 1961-1990 and the future scenario periods were downscaled by the Delta Method and the Weather Generator to produce daily weather data.After the verification with local weather and fire data,the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System was used to assess the forest fire weather situation under climate change in the study region.An increasing trend of fire weather severity was found over the 21st century in the study region under the both future climate change scenarios,compared to the 1961-1990 baseline period.The annual mean/maximum fire weather index was predicted to rise continuously during 2010-2099,and by the end of the 21st century it is predicted to rise by 22%-52% across much of China’s boreal forest.The significant increases were predicted in the spring from of April to June and in the summer from July to August.In the summer,the fire weather index was predicted to be higher than the current index by as much as 148% by the end of the 21st century.Under the scenarios of SRES A2a and B2a,both the chance of extremely high fire danger occurrence and the number of days of extremely high fire danger occurrence was predicted to increase in the study region.It is anticipated that the number of extremely high fire danger days would increase from 44 days in 1980s to 53-75 days by the end of the 21st century.     

Manipulation of conventional forest management practices to increase forest growth—results from the Skogaby project

Above ground dry mass production and N accumulation on an areal basis in stems, branches and needles as well as in litterfall in a Norway spruce stand in south Sweden treated with unlimited availability of water and nutrients (fertilisation with irrigation) or of water (irrigation) during a 6 year experimental period are presented. Fertilisation was made in liquid form on a weekly basis during the vegetation period with 100 kg N ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ during each year. The fertiliser also included a balanced composition of P, K, Ca, Mg and S as well as of micronutrients. Irrigation was carried out as soon as a 20 mm water storage deficit developed. It is concluded that there is a large potential to improve Norway spruce production through liquid fertilisation with irrigation. Stem and branch production of Norway spruce was almost doubled due to this treatment. Also, stand needle dry mass and litterfall were markedly increased in comparison with the control. Water and N availability were the two most limiting growth factors. During the experimental period, irrigation had a greater effect on growth than N addition. The gross N uptake increased by 450 kg ha⁻¹ as a result of 600 kg ha⁻¹ fertiliser addition. Needle retention was increased for irrigated trees but needle litterfall remained unchanged. Changing the forest management of Norway spruce to intensive cultivatation results in transitional carbon sequestration in both stand and soil compared with an untreated ecosystem. The largest long-term environmental value is, however, achieved if this cultivated renewable biomass is used as a substitute for fossil fuels. Wood utilisation options of intensively cultivated Norway spruce are discussed.     

The forest as a taskscape: seeing through the good forest owner’s eyes

This article is a reanalysis of interviews conducted in 2006 and 2009 with forest owners and their families. It gives a complementary interpretation of the forest owners’ decisions to replant spruce despite strong criticism from the public and from experts. The interviewees’ visual conception of the forest landscape and how they relate to it through their forestry practices is analysed. The results show that the forest owners prefer landscapes that are clean and tidy, showing characteristics indicative of forestry skills. At the same time they remain sensitive to the existence of other value systems among the public. The forest owners’ way of looking at the forest was characterized by the fact that they worked with the landscape; for them the forest is not only a symbolic project linked to identity, but also a taskscape, an imprint of performed work. In the discussion, the forest owners’ aesthetic value system is discussed and a supplementary answer is given to why forest owners refused to heed warnings about the replanting of spruce, a question that earlier studies generally attributed to forest owners’ wish to avoid short-term economic risks.     

The “German model” of integrative multifunctional forest management—Analysing the emergence and political evolution of a forest management concept

Forest policy and management are subject to various and often conflicting demands, which internationally have led to distinct policy responses and related management paradigms. These range from a strong focus on commodity production complemented by economic rationalities – e.g. focusing on plantations – to community-based or social forestry approaches highlighting local participation and stakeholder engagement, to a focus on ecosystem services and conservation. A major challenge involves the potential orientation of the overall forest policy and management paradigm either towards integrating manifold demands more or less evenly across an area, or towards dividing the land base into forest areas with different management priorities. The specific reconciliation and integration of both sides of the spectrum have been at the centre of scientific and political discussion on forest policy and management for several decades.In this context, the “German model” of integrative and multifunctional forest management has received international attention. It is regarded as an example for integrating diverse (societal and ecological) demands into a timber-production-oriented management approach. At the same time, the model's primary focus on timber production has been criticised by some.In this paper, we analyse the political dimension of the German model by tracing the birth and evolution of the so-called LÖWE programme, a much noticed governmental forest management programme in the German state of Lower Saxony. LÖWE has frequently been presented as a particularly successful example of multifunctional forestry. We first assess the specific societal and political circumstances that led to the establishment of the programme 20 years ago. Subsequently, we assess its political function in forest policy debates about various demands on Lower Saxony's public forests. We show that the evolution of the programme can be interpreted in two distinct but non-exclusive ways. On the one hand, LÖWE was a strategic success story for the Forest Service because it aligned (and also appeased) conflicting demands in line with the changing political priorities. On the other hand, it also embodied a learning process towards environmental policy integration. By underlining LÖWE as an example of the German model of integrative multifunctional forest management, we reiterate the strategic importance of this model in the German context and also highlight future challenges and related research needs.     

Participatory forest management in Burkina Faso：Members’ perception of performance

This study examines variations in the performance of partic-ipatory forest management programs among four forest management groups （FMGs） in southern Burkina Faso, and assesses the factors that influence their members’ perceptions of performance through a house-hold survey of 216 members. Variations in performance scores among the FMGs were analyzed through multivariate analysis of variance while multinomial regression analysis was used to identify factors that influ-ence their perception of the performance. The results reveal significant differences in performance scores among FMGs. Members of some FMGs perceived that the participatory forest management program ena-bled them to get benefits from the sale of fuelwood while performance scores in the forest conservation and decision-making processes is gener-ally poor. The score for economic performance of FMGs in turn was related to better access to roads and markets. Group size tended to en-hance economic performance via its strong influence on annual fuelwood harvest, while the resource base appeared to be inconsequential. Mem-bers of the forest management groups perceived that large group size and group heterogeneity, particularly in terms of ethnicity, as well as knowledge and awareness of problems related to the forest environment have no influence on the performance of their respective groups. For rural communities to have a favorable disposition toward sustainable forest management, differences in member understanding of collective actions and their impact before and during the implementation of partic-ipatory forest management programs should be considered.     

Analysis of the forest fires in the Antalya region of Turkey using the Keetch–Byram drought index

We investigated the correlation of large fires([300 ha) from 1992 to 2013 within the borders of the Antalya Regional Directorate of Forestry using the Keetch–Byram drought index(KBDI). Daily KBDI values were calculated for each year, and values for the period before the year 2000 differed significantly from those after2000. After 2000(large fires occurred in 2004, 2006, 2007,2008, 2010, and 2013), when KBDI values increased, the KBDI, but not the number of fires, was inversely correlated with the natural log of the burned area(NLBA). While there were both high and low KBDI values when the NLBA was small, only high KBDI values were associated with high NLBA values. Particularly for logarithmic values of 4 and higher, KBDI values increased in parallel with increases in NLBA values. On the basis of a Mann–Whitney U test done in addition to a Pearson correlation test, we found that when the burned areas were grouped according to small and large areas, the KBDI could be used to distinguish the two groups. Using a conditional probability analysis, we found that 4th, 5th and 6th class KBDI values may lead to large fires at the 60 % possibility.Similarly, the possibility of large fires greater than the median burned area in any given 6 years was found to be48 %. In addition, while the mean value of KBDI is 390.51 for the period from May to September for these 6 years, it is 359.93 for the other years. Consequently, the area burned also increased as the KBDI classes(Class 0: 0–99, Class 1:100–199, Class 2: 200–299, Class 3: 300–399, Class 4:400–499, Class 5: 500–599, Class 6: 600–699, and Class 7:700–800) increase.     

Regional differences of water conservation in Beijing’s forest ecosystem

The water conservation capacities of main forests in Beijing,China were estimated through the quantitative analysis.Various methods developed in published papers on forest hydrology were employed.The forests in Huairou,Yanqing,Miyun,Mentougou and Fangshan districts are the main contributors to water conservation(the cumulative ratio reaches 65%),and the forests in Tongzhou,Chaoyang,Shunyi and Daxing districts have the highest water conservation capacity(3000 m3/ha).Altitude and slope are the key factors to affect the water conservation capacity.The forests located in Plain Area,Hilly Area,Low Mountain,and Middle Mountain contributes 27%,28%,24% and 21% of the conserved water,respectively.The water conservation capacity of forests in Plain Area(2 948 m3/ha),is superior to the forests in other regions.And the forests situated on Flat Slope,Moderate Slope and Gentle Slope constitute the largest proportion(nearly 93%) of water conservation,while the forests on Flat Slope has the highest water conservation capacity(2 797 m3/ha),and the forest on Steep slope has the lowest water conservation capacity(948 m3/ha).     

Sustainability as a guideline for strategic planning? The problem of long-term forest management in the face of uncertainty

Forest management, which is the main focus of this paper, is facing fundamental paradoxes and dilemmas that cannot be addressed by long-term management strategies or management concepts, even where the intention of these strategies is to follow a sustainability path. On this basis, it is argued that sustainability is not a suitable future-oriented term but rather a term oriented towards the present. The more complex the relationships between the different social subsystems, the more rapid the social change of modern societies, the more confusing the present situation and the more unpredictable the future, the less suitable utopian, long-term strategies and the attitude and strategy of firm decisiveness are to address challenges. Several suggested management strategies and techniques such as incrementalism, adaptive management and scenario-analysis are critically discussed. The intention of these strategies is to cope with uncertainty and ignorance. With regard to their limitations, it can be concluded that strategic decisions in the face of uncertainty have to explicitly consider the reversibility of decisions and the awareness of their shortcomings in relation to various dimensions of risk, uncertainty and ignorance. It is therefore necessary to look for modes of planning that actively address uncertainty in organizing learning opportunities and permanent feedback control.     

Strategies on natural forest protection of collective forest area in minority nationality community in China─A case of the forest resource management in datu village

IntroductionForestisakindofmulti-function'resourcethatcanbesustaininglyutiIized,butsomeprobIems,suchasinsufficiencyoftimberyieId,soiIerosion,cIimateim-baIanceinpartdistrictetc.,oftenarousedbecauseofincorrectuseandmanagementofnaturalresources.InordertodevelopthefOrestry,IotsoffOrestrypoIi-cieshavebeenissuedandcarriedout.V8rioustypesofforestresourcesmanagementhavebeenaroused,especialIycollectiveforestareasinsouthChina.However,whydiff6rentefficiencies,good,badandworse,eventoresultinthedecrea…     

Analysis of rural people’s attitude towards the management of tribal forests in South Africa

The management of forests for multiple purposes coupled with a varying socioeconomic profile of forest users can result in attitudinal differences towards forest management. This study examines the attitudes of rural people in South Africa towards the management of tribal forests. Attitude towards forest management was analysed with respect to five forest management objectives: 1, forest management for rural livelihood resilience to climate change; 2, forest management for reduction and management of forest fire risk; 3, forest management for sustainable forest-based livelihood; 4, forest management for household socioeconomic wellbeing; and 5, forest management for community-based climate change adaptation initiative. A household questionnaire survey was used to elicit information from 155 rural households using the proportionate random sampling procedure. Chi-square test was used to analyse data from the household survey. Factorial analysis was used to analyse variance in attitude towards forest management. The results showed that rural people generally have positive attitudes toward the management of tribal forests. Factor analysis isolated 2 major factors that explained 61% variance in attitude. Based on the findings we conclude that centralising forest management around the four management objectives (1, 3, 4 & 5) are likely to promote inclusive forest-based development in the study communities.     

The role of governments in forest certification—a normative analysis based on new institutional economics theories

Forest certification is an issue that changes the forestry sector more profoundly than many governmental initiatives. Governments have taken quite different approaches across the globe and over time in dealing with the phenomenon. In most regions, they have seemingly switched to a ‘wait and see’ mode when confronted with the complex and fast-developing issue of forest certification. This paper explores the usefulness of economic theories to come up with recommendations on the role of governments. The approach taken is mainly based on ‘new institutional economics’ theories, especially on economics of information and related agent issues. Data collected from policy makers are used to compare theoretical positions against empirical findings (Werle, 1997). The paper shows that the economic theories applied provide rather clear indications on the role of governments. There are essential roles, such as ensuring compatibility with laws and international obligations. These have largely been fulfilled. Ensuring legal compliance, however, might well not be the only guiding function that governments should exert for the sake of market transparency, and thus market efficiency. That concerns both setting standards for forest management and roles in setting up and running private certification systems.     

The impact of spatial agglomeration on export of forest products manufacturing in China: evidence from enterprises’ data

Industrial spatial agglomeration is an important feature of modern industry development; however, little academic attention has been paid to the impact of industrial spatial agglomeration on the export of enterprises. Based on a large sample from a Chinese industrial enterprise database, this paper applies the EG index method to measure the spatial agglomeration level of forest products’ manufacturing and further explores its impact on exports. The results show that the spatial agglomeration level improved slightly in China’s forest products’ manufacturing during 1999–2009. However, the spatial agglomeration level of China’s forest products’ manufacturing is lower than is the average level of the total manufacturing industry. The regression results show that the level of spatial agglomeration has a significant positive impact on the export of enterprises in China’s forest products’ manufacturing industry. This may imply that the spatial agglomeration effect has not yet been fully exploited, and the level of spatial agglomeration in China’s forest products’ manufacturing industry needs to be further improved.     

Is multiple-use forest management widely implementable in the tropics?

Multiple-use forest management (MFM) for timber, non-timber forest products and environmental services is envisioned by many as a preferable alternative to timber-dominant management models. It is praised as a more equitable strategy of satisfying the demands from multiple stakeholders, an ecologically more benign harvesting approach, and a way of adding more value to forests making them more robust to conversion. MFM thus represents a common and prime management objective under the sustainable forest management (SFM) paradigm. However, its implementation has been lagging behind the expectations, particularly in the tropics. In this paper, we analyze selected MFM implementation examples to try to explain why. We scrutinize the tropical forestry debate to find that the meaning of MFM has undergone significant changes along the way, and that the topic depends heavily on the scale of inspection. Also, we examine the conditions that either favor or constrain MFM adoption. At the local scale, the factors that set the scene for multiple-use approaches to be successfully adopted are favorable governance conditions relate to land-devolution policies, effective collective institutions, and multi-agent forest-management models. MFM feasibility also depends on the stage of forest transition, i.e. in society's economic development. MFM (at the stand level) dominates in poor subsistence-oriented autarchic forest settings, it typically declines when entering capitalist stages of specialized commodity production, but may then rebound (at the landscape level) in more advanced development stages. Key factors MFM generally is up against range from intricate technical trade-offs to the economies of scale in forestry production and marketing. MFM remains a valid management alternative under specifically favorable local context conditions, especially when practiced at the landscape scale, but these conditions are less frequent than commonly assumed.     

The Austrian domestic forest policy community in change? Impacts of the globalisation and Europeanisation of forest politics

The interest intermediation system has always attracted the attention of forest policy scientists. However, research on this subject has focused on the national level, despite the fact that forest issues are increasingly prominent on international and European agendas, both in the EU and the Pan-European Process on the Protection of Forests in Europe. Accordingly, the impacts of the globalisation and Europeanisation of forest policy and the peculiarities of multi-level policy processes have not been sufficiently taken into account. This article examines how international forest politics and the integration of national actors in the EU multi-level system of joint decision-making affect national actor constellations. To this end, I draw on the advocacy coalition framework to depict the Austrian forest policy network and its actors’ dispute on forest certification, as well as on hypotheses and empirical results of multi-level governance scholars and on my own preliminary results to investigate the likely effects of the evolving EU forest policy. The discussion provides some hypotheses and indications that national forest policy networks might be subject to significant change.     

Rural household and forest: an evaluation of household’s dependency on community forest in Nepal

The aim of this paper is to analyze the level of dependency of rural households on forests, based on the economic status of the households and the property regimes of forests. The analysis of household-level dependency suggests that large numbers of rural households are benefiting regularly from their community forests. Out of three forest property regimes examined, community forests were found to be the most prominent sources for supplying forest products to local households. Analysis of the degree of forest-products dependency and the economic status of households shows that the low economic status households rely more on the community forest than the economically better-off households. In addition, a ² analysis indicates that the economic status of households affects the degree of forest-product collection activities. The results show three types of property regime with respect to forest management in Chitwan. Each regime holds its own ownership rights, which control the harvesting of forest products and provides incentives to the local households.     

Climate change impacts and forest adaptation in the Asia–Pacific region: from regional experts' perspectives

Expert opinions have been used in a variety of fields to identify relevant issues and courses of action. This study surveys experts in forestry and climate change from the Asia–Pacific region to gauge their perspectives on the impacts of climate change and on the challenges faced by forest adaptation in the region, and explores recommendations and initiatives for adapting forests to climate change. There was consensus regarding the impacts of climate change on forest ecosystems and on economic sectors such as agriculture and forestry. Respondents also indicated a lack of public awareness and policy and legislation as challenges to addressing climate change. However, the results indicate differences in opinion between regions on the negative impacts of climate change and in satisfaction with actions taken to address climate change,highlighting the need for locally specific policies and research. The study presents specific recommendations to address issues of most concern, based on subregion and professional affiliation throughout the Asia–Pacific region.The results can be used to improve policy and forest management throughout the region. This research will also provide valuable suggestions on how to apply research findings and management recommendations outside of the AP region. The conclusions should be communicated relative to the level of the research and the target audience,ensuring that scientific findings and management recommendations are effectively communicated to ensure successful implementation of forest adaptation strategies.