Joint research on the precise determination of the energy and protein requirements of fattening pigs. 4. The effect of the energy level on the fattening of Camborough-type hybrid swine

Scientific feeding experiments were carried out with 5 castrated male pigs and 4 female animals of the genetic origin "Camborough" in the live weight range between 30 and 100 kg with a subdivision at 60 kg. In each test group the animals were fed individually and received rations with approximately equal contents of protein, amino acids, minerals and vitamins but different energy contents. Energy intake was adjusted to 3 levels of 100%, 85% and 70% of semi-ad-libitum intake. Apart from that, the digestibility of the feed mixtures used in the 2 fattening periods was determined. Having reached a live weight of 100 kg, 7 representative animals per group were slaughtered and a number of slaughtering parameters were registered. In all three test groups the daily live weight gain over the complete fattening period was very high (846, 819 and 778 g). Though the weight gain in group 3 with 70% of the energy supply of group 1 is significantly lower than in the other two groups, it is, however, only 70 g lower than in group 1. Consequently, the feed expenditure (2.6 kg mixed feed per kg live weight gain) in group 3 is by 20% lower than in group 1, in which the feed expenditure is 3.2 kg mixed feed per kg live weight gain. There were no significant differences on the weight gain performances and the registered carcass parameters between sows and castrated male pigs. Observed deviating tendencies are discussed.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Joint research on the precise determination of the energy and protein requirements of fattening pigs. 8. The effect of various protein levels on the performance and feed expenditure of fattening pigs

Live weight development and feed expenditure were investigated on 3 levels of protein supply and isocaloric rations in scientific feeding experiments with 10 castrated male pigs each of the genetic origin land race pig X large white fed individually in the live weight range between 30 and 100 kg with a subdivision at 60 kg. In the air-dried matter the crude protein content of the feed mixtures used in the first fattening period was 17.6; 15.7 and 13.7% resp. and in the second fattening period from 60 kg live weight onwards 14.9; 12.8 and 11.4% resp. for the 3 test groups. In both fattening periods the digestibility of the rations and the N-balance were determined at 3 representative animals from each of the 3 groups. The following average live weight gains were achieved in the 3 test groups: 1st fattening period: 662; 592 and 539 g resp.; 2nd X fattening period: 709; 676 and 644 g resp. Feed expenditure over the complete fattening period was 4.2; 4.5 and 5.2 kg air-dried matter per kg live weight gain. The highest protein supply resulted in the best live weight gain performance and the lowest expenditure.     

Joint research on the precise determination of the energy and protein requirements of fattening pigs. 5. The effect of the crude protein concentration in the isocaloric diet on the fattening performance of swine of the Bulgarian Landrace

Live weight development and feed expenditure on 3 levels of crude protein supply and with isocaloric rations were investigated in scientific feeding experiments with 7 castrated male pigs each of the Bulgarian land race in the live weight range between 30 and 100 kg with a subdivision at 60 kg. The crude protein concentrations in the rations for the 3 groups were 17%, 15% and 13% in the first fattening period and 15% 13% and 11% in the second fattening period. In the two fattening periods the digestibility of the feed mixtures used was ascertained in experiments. The daily live weight gain in the three groups over the whole fattening period reached a high level of performance (836 g, 778 g and 757 g). The feed expenditure values were 3.3, 3.7 and 3.7 kg mixed feed (88% dry matter) per kg live weight gain. The highest protein supply resulted in the best weight gain performance and the lowest feed expenditure.     

Studies on the performance-related lysine requirement in fattening pigs. 1. Influence of energy and aminoacid intake on fattening

A total of 110 barrows fed varying levels of energy and amino acids in 8 treatments, were tested. The weight gains per fattening day and energy expenditure were found to be mainly determined by energy intake. Up to a liveweight of 100 kg both low and high levels of amino acid supply produced the same fattening performance results as amino acid supply to standard. In the 100-120 kg liveweight range, the animals fed higher levels of protein proved slightly superior. As to energy expenditure, animals subjected to restricted feeding up to 70 kg liveweight and fed full rations later, consumed 2.22 kEFs (2.22 kilo energetic feed equivalents/swine) per kg gain and proved significantly superior to those animals that were very intensively fed at the beginning and put to restricted feeding beyond 70 kg liveweight (2.53 kEFs per kg gain) as well as to those receiving high levels of energy all the time (2.39 kEFs/kg gain). In the latter case, 23 g of lysine were required per kg gain.     

Lysine requirement of fattening boars in respect to their performance. 1. Influence of the consumption of energy and amino acids on the fattening performance

With a total number of 157 boars 9 feeding variants with different levels of energy and amino acids were checked. The weight increase per fattening day and the energy and lysine expenditure per kg live weight increase were determined. The insufficient supply with lysine had negative effects on the live weight increase and the energy expenditure during the whole fattening period. Between the variantes with a high supply with amino acids (120%) and the supply according to standard (100%) no significant differences concerning the live weight increase could be ascertained up to 90 kg live weight. Between 90 and 120 kg live weight the animals in the variant with medium energy level and 120% lysine supply achieved significantly higher increases than those in the standard variant. Up to 90 kg live weight the energy expenditure for all groups amounted to 2,08 kEFs (energetic feed units for pigs) per kg live weight increase. The most suitable results were achieved by the animals which received the variants rich in energy (1,760 resp. 1,770 kEFs per kg live weight increase). Above the 90 kg live weight limit the energy expenditure rose considerably, remained however under 2,000 kEFs per kg live weight increase for the boars of the variant with medium energy level and 120% lysine supply as well as for the variant rich in energy and 100% lysine supply. The lysine expenditure in the first variant amounted to 25.1 g per kg live weight increase and for the variant rich in energy to 20.6 g lysine per kEFs.     

Performance dependence of the lysine requirement of fattening sows. 1. Effect of energy and amino acid consumption on fattening performance

Seven variants with graduated energy and amino acid levels were tested at 105 growing sows in a live weight range between 30 and 120 kg. The weight increase and the energy expenditure showed a distinct dependence on the energy level of the ration and are mainly determined by the energy intake. Up to a live weight of 90 kg a 20% lysine over- or undersupply in comparison with the norm had no influence on the growth intensity of the animals. On the low and medium energy levels there was a tendency of superiority of the animals which received feeds rich in protein in the section between 90 and 120 kg. In the variant with a high energy level, however, a diminishing increase was detected in the last third of the fattening period in connection with the growing lysine level. The overall most suitable result was achieved in variant M 120 with a daily increase of 675 g and an energy expenditure of 2.04 kilo energetic feed units for pigs per kg increase.     

Nutrient and energy retention in growing lambs. 1. Results of growth experiments

The results of a growth experiment are explained which was carried out as basis for the control slaughtering method and for N-balance experiments with hybrid fattening lambs of both sexes and of three different genetic constructions in comparison with male merino mutton lambs. The animals were kept individually on perforated floor and received pelleted fattening feed for lambs ad libitum. In the live weight range between 15 and 30 kg the male hybrid lambs reached significantly higher live weight gains than the merino mutton sheep, the former tending towards higher feed intake and lower energy expenditure. The male hybrid lambs showed a significantly higher live weight gain and a significantly lower energy expenditure than the female animals of equal live weight whereas there were no differences between the sexes in feed intake.     

Performance dependent lysine requirement of fattening pigs. 3. Effect of amino acid and energy intake on fat, protein and lysine deposition of swine

The gain in structural matter had a linear course with a corresponding feeding intensity and depending on the period of fattening. However, the animals given high-energy diets deposited 130 g protein per day during the first fattening period, this deposition being compensated in the course of further growth by a considerably lower deposition in the sense of aequifinality. Up to a live weight of 70 kg, animals subjected first to restricted feeding and then to fully balanced feeding revealed the highest protein deposition during the last period of fattening, this fact emphasizing the leanmeat character of the animal material used. The daily fat deposition was found clearly determined by energy intake and independent of amino acid supply. Lysine conversion was influenced by the intake of lysine and energy. Under feeding to norm it reached some 40 and 30% during the first and second periods of fattening, respectively.     

Joint research on the precise determination of the energy and protein requirements of fattening pigs. 2. Energy and nitrogen metabolism of fattening hybrids in the fattening range of 30 to 120 kg

In 3 experiments a total of 242 total metabolism experiments with ad libitum feeding (experiment 1), 75% (experiment 2) and 62% (experiment 3) of the energy level of the 1st experiment and approximately equal protein and amino acid doses in experiments 1-3 were carried out with 8 castrated male fattening hybrids each (large white X land race pig) X line 150) in the live weight range between 30 and 120 kg. On average, feed intake over the whole live weight range was 2.24; 1.79 and 1.50 kg/animal and day, the corresponding daily live weight gain was 729, 533 and 396 g. With regard to the digestibility of the energy and the nutrients and the metabolisable energy in % of the gross energy there was no relation to the development of the animals. The intake of metabolisable energy per kg live weight decreased with ad libitum feeding and with the advancing development at the end of the experiment in contrast to the beginning of the experiment to 53%, energy retention to 56%. The utilisation of metabolisable energy for body energy retention, taking account of a maintenance requirement of 450 kJ/kg live weight 0,62 on the average of the 3 experiments was 68.4 +/- 1.9, 70.3 +/- 2.0 and 64.3 +/- 2.6%. Energy retention in experiments 1 to 3 amounted to 8.6, 6.8 and 5.3 MJ at the beginning and to 18.1, 12.2 and 8.0 MJ per animal and day at the end of the experiment. Protein energy retention of the pigs (live weight 40 kg) was 26% of the total energy retention in experiments 1 and 2 and 49% in experiment 3. In experiments 1 and 3 protein retention decreased to 15% of the total energy retention, in experiment 2 protein retention remained constantly at 22% between 60 and 110 kg live weight and then decreased to 18%. Consequently, the N-balances were 23-16 g, 16-20 g and 16-9 g/animal and day. The chemical composition of the carcasses was strongly influenced by the level of nutrition. At the beginning of the experiment the protein content averaged between 49 and 57% and the total fat content between 31 and 38% of the dry matter. At the end of the experiment the carcasses of the animals from experiments 1-3 had crude protein contents of 28, 33 and 42% and total fat contents of 66, 61 and 50% of the dry matter.     

Effect of the polyether antibiotic "monensin" on fattening and slaughtering performance as well as protein and energy retention in bulls

In an individual feeding experiment (150-500 kg live weight) the influence of the polyether antibiotic Monensin on the fattening, slaughtering and retention performances of crossbreeding dairy bulls (genotype 31) and fattening hybrids (genotype 61) was ascertained. The supplementation of the polyether antibiotic on average resulted in a decrease by approximately equal to 11% of the dry matter and energy expenditure per kg weight gain due to a lower feed intake and a higher live weight gain. The slaughtering parameter investigated and the chemical composition of the empty body remained uninfluenced. The daily nutrient retention values were positively influenced by the Monensin supplementation since the fattening bulls of the test group required 30 days less to achieve the attempted fattening weight. The additional retention of protein, fat and energy per animal and day in the dairy bulls approximately equal to 10.9; 13.5 and 16.4% and in the fattening hybrids 1.9; 3.2 and 2.6%. Due to a higher energy retention at a lower level of feed and energy intake after Monensin supplementation an average of approximately equal to 11.3 and 15.4% resp. more of the consumed digestible protein and the digestible energy resp. were retained in the empty bodies. One can conclude that Monensin improved the utilisation of feed energy; obviously the effect of the polyether antibiotic is due to its influence on processes in the rumen or directly or indirectly on metabolism.     

The effect of rank order on feed intake and growth of fattening pigs

On the basis of 120 fattening pigs, classified in 6 groups of 20 animals each, the rank order was determined and its influence on the feed intake behaviour as well as on the fattening progress was studied. The results show that with respect to the total length of stay at the trough and to the time per visit to the feeding station the dominant barrows stayed significantly longer at the feeding place than their subordinate pen mates. Additionally, they showed a higher weight at the end of the fattening period and a higher weight gain per day of fattening. As to the frequency of the visits to the feeding station there was no significant difference between high-ranking and low-ranking animals during the period of observation.     

甜菜碱对育肥猪生长性能和PRKAG3基因相对表达量的影响

为了研究甜菜碱对育肥猪生长性能和PRKAG3基因表达量的影响,试验采用单因子试验设计,选用80 kg左右的健康杜长大三元杂交猪60头,随机分成4组,每组3个重复,每个重复5头猪,在日粮中添加甜菜碱0,500,1 000,1 500 mg/kg,试验期为41 d,试验结束后随机选择(每组随机选择3头)12头猪进行屠宰测定。结果表明:与对照组相比,日粮中添加甜菜碱对育肥猪的日增重、日采食量、料重比均有明显影响,可以不同程度地提高日增重和采食量,降低料重比,其中以添加1 500 mg/kg甜菜碱(4组)的效果最为明显;日粮中添加甜菜碱可以不同程度地提高育肥猪PRKAG3基因的表达量,其中以1 500 mg/kg甜菜碱(4组)的效果最为明显。说明甜菜碱可以提供甲基供体,节约蛋氨酸和胆碱,从而提高育肥猪的生长性能。     

Requirements of Muscovy ducks (Cairina moschata domestica) for crude protein and energy levels of fattening diets

Groups of male and female Cairina ducks subjected to equal starter feeding (1st to 3rd weeks) were used from the 4th week of live (fattening period) to test feed mixes of varying energy and crude protein levels (480 energetic feed equivalents/heu[EFH] - 140 g crude protein[CP]; 480 EFh - 180/g CP; 555 EFh - 140 g CP; 555 EFh - 180 g CP; 625 EEh - 140 g CP; 625 EFh - 180 g CP - all figures referred to 1 kg of feed). The different energy levels remained without influence of the live weight development. High-energy feed caused, however, higher expenditures of energetic feed equivalents per kg of gain and resulted in carcases with higher fat proportion. At all the 3 energy levels under study, high-protein feeding proved superior to low-protein rations with regard to live weight gains and meat yield. For the time being, 500 EFh and 180 g CP per kg of organic matter are recommended as indicators for Cairina duck fattening rations.     

Vitamin A requirement of growing swine. 1. Effect of vitamin A supply on growth of piglets and fattening swine

For the purpose of ascertaining the vitamin A requirement seven experiments with 303 pigs in the live weight range between 6.5 and 114 kg were made. In three experiments under in practice conditions we checked the standard vitamin A supplement to the mixed feed with 1,732 pigs (live weight range between 8.5 and 110 kg). The supplement to vitamin-A-free rations and to those poor in or free of carotene amounted to between 0 and 8,000 IU/kg feed. Above that, between 0 and 16 mg beta-carotene and 1,000 mg nitrite/kg feed were supplemented. As long as the vitamin A store in the liver during weaning amounted to greater than 50 IU and greater than 100 IU/g at the beginning of fattening, feed intake, live weight growth and feed expenditure were not influenced by the supplement of vitamin and provitamin resp. The supplement of 250 IU resulted in the same weight growth from weaning to the end of fattening as that of 4,000 IU. Nitrite supplement had a negative effect at 250 IU, at 500 IU vitamin A consumption and weight growth tended to be only insignificantly lower. The methaemoglobin content decreasing in the course of the experiment reflects the adaptation of the pigs to the nitrite load. The consumption and growth depression caused by vitamin A deficiency could be observed from the 7th week of the experiment when casein-swelling starch rations were fed, but from the 13th week of the experiment only when cereal-soybean oilmeal rations were fed. The weight of liver, spleen, kidneys, heart and brain was not influenced by vitamin A supply. The same applies to the body composition and retention with the exception of two deficiency piglets, which contained less fat in the empty body than the control animals.     

Initial research on the use of mixed corn grain and stalk silage in broiler fattening

The suitability of a corn and cob maize silage (CCM) as a component rich in energy in the fattening ration was investigated in a growth experiment with male broilers. The CCM silage with a dry matter content of 60.2% contained the following substances determining its value (per 1 kg dry matter of the feed): 102 g crude protein, 61 g crude fibre and 682 energetic feed units for chickens (EFUc). CCM silage was either fed as a component of a feed mixture consisting of 70.5% CCM silage and 29.5% protein concentrate (all values of original substance) or both components of the ration were fed to broilers separately. The protein concentrate was composed as follows (values per kg): 650 g soybean oilmeal, 110 g fishmeal, 85 g tankage from rendering plants, 55 g torula yeast, 70 g mineral mixture and 30 g of a mixture of biologically active substances. The broilers of the control group received commercial fattening feed for broilers with coarse maize meal as cereal component. The feed mixture with CCM silage and separate CCM silage were accepted readily. When CCM silage and protein concentrate were offered alternatively, the same amount of CCM silage was consumed but 8% less protein concentrate. The broilers fed with CCM silage plus protein concentrate reached 96-97% of the live weight of the control animals (1.952 g/animal, 49th day), which received conventional feed, although their net energy intake was 10% lower. This proves a more favourable net energy expenditure for the test groups fed with CCM silage.     

肥育猪饲粮中添加苜蓿草粉对其生产性能、消化率及血清指标的影响

本研究目的在于评价在玉米－豆粕型基础饲粮中添加苜蓿草粉对肥育猪的利用价值。选取体重约５０ｋｇ的杜×长×大三元杂交猪４０头,采用单因子完全随机设计,分为５个组,每组４个重复,分别在饲粮中添加不同比例的苜蓿草粉,依次为：０（对照组）,１０％（试验Ｉ组）,１５％（试验ＩＩ组）,２０％（试验ＩＩＩ组）,２０％＋０．１％纤维素酶（试验ＩＶ 组）,各组主要营养指标相同。测定肥育猪饲喂含不同水平苜蓿草粉饲粮后主要生产性能、消化率及血清中主要生化指标的变化。结果表明,１）试验ＩＩ、ＩＩＩ、ＩＶ 组平均日增重、采食量较对照组明显提高,而试验ＩＩ、ＩＶ 组的料肉比明显降低,因此,添加１５％的苜蓿草粉或２０％的苜蓿草粉＋０．１％ 纤维素酶有利于提高肥育猪的体重及饲料转化率。２）试验Ｉ、ＩＩ组和对照组相比,其干物质、粗蛋白质、粗灰分、中性洗涤纤维的表观消化率均不同程度提高;虽然试验ＩＩＩ、ＩＶ 组上述４项指标的表观消化率和对照组相近或稍高,但试验ＩＶ 组各主要指标优于试验ＩＩＩ组,说明添加１０％和１５％的苜蓿草粉有利于提高营养物质的表观消化率,苜蓿草粉添加至２０％时加纤维素酶对各项指标消化率有改进。３）肥育猪饲粮中添加苜蓿草粉,降低了其血液甘油三酯、胆固醇及低密度脂蛋白胆固醇含量,升高了高密度脂蛋白胆固醇含量。试验证明,在肥育猪饲粮中添加１５％紫花苜蓿草粉对肥育猪生产性能、营养物质消化率及血清生化指标的改善有利,苜蓿草粉降低血液胆固醇的功能可能是其中皂苷的作用。     

Effect of iodine, copper and zinc supplements to rations with a high quota of rapeseed extract meal on the growth and thyroid function of fattening swine. 2. The effect of the iodine supplement on nutrient digestibility and on protein and energy retention

Three groups of six pigs each (live weight at the beginning of the experiment 20 kg) were given a cereal ration with 8% rape seed meal. Group I did not receive a J supplement and was fed ad libitum. The rations of groups II and III were supplemented with 1 mg J/kg feed. The feed intake of group II was limited to the amount consumed by group I (pair fed); group III received the feed ad libitum. The daily weight gains of the 3 groups were 327, 377 and 613 g, feed expenditure 3.79, 3.68 and 3.47 kg/kg gain. In an N balance experiment carried out with 3 animals each from groups I and II, 41.4% of the N taken in group I and 43.8% in group II were retained (p greater than 0.05). Liver, intestinal fat and leaf were heavier in group I (p less than 0.01), the protein content of the empty body, the bones and bristles significantly lower than in group II. Protein retention in group II was 14% higher than in group I. In case of iodine deficiency protein retention is lower, energy retention, however, is largely unchanged.     

The rearing of female twin cattle using only feed pellets in comparison with straw pellets plus a concentrate mixture. 2. Weight gain and feed consumption as well as rumen fermentation in the 1st half of the 2d year of life

In investigations with 30 young cows (twin cattle) the applicability of straw materials as sole roughage was tested during the first half of their second year of life (183 feeding days). In the course of the experiment sole feed pellets (I) and partly pelleted rations of dried feed (straw pellets plus loose wheat and loose wheat straw resp.; II) were used. Approximately 72% of the dry matter intake was provided from straw materials in both groups and on an average of the test period. Weight gain and feed expenditure were ascertained and at the end of the test period also the parameters of rumen fermentation and of the concentration of some metabolism parameters in the blood serum. With feed supply being restrictive (2.2 kg dry matter/100 kg live weight), a high dry matter intake from straw (1.6 kg/100 kg live weight or 4.8 kg/animal and day resp.) and average weight gains of between 574 (I) and 582 g (II) were achieved. The standard expenditure of energy (kEFUcattle) and protein stated in the GDR feed evaluation system for this period of development was undercut by 27 (II) and 29 (I)% and 12 (II) and 18 (I)% resp. On average the expenditure of kEFUcattle/kg weight gain was 4.75 (I) and 4.98 (II) and that of digestible crude protein/kg weight gain 679 (I) and 733 g (II). Compared to standard values the expenditure of energy and feed expenditure from concentrates was 80%. Rumen fermentation conditions corresponded to those of a high cellulolytic activity (C2: C3 ratio of greater than 4: 1). The only significant differences between the groups at the time of sampling were to be observed in the total concentration of volatile fatty acids and in the pH-value in the rumen. The absolute (1/animal) and relative (1/kg dry matter intake) volume of rumen fluid varied between 65 and 70 and between 10.5 and 12.5 1. The ascertained concentration of selected metabolism parameters were within the physiologic standard range.     

Joint research on the precise determination of the energy and protein requirements of fattening pigs. 3. The energy requirement of hybrid swine

The energy requirement for hybrid pigs ((large white X land race pig) X line 150) in the live weight range between 35 and 120 kg is derived from 242 measurings of the total metabolism as the sum of energy requirement for maintenance and energy requirement for live weight gain. Energy requirement is estimated by means of the following equation: (Formula: see text). Energy maintenance requirement, energy content per 1 kg live weightgain in dependence of the daily gain and the derived energy requirement for growth and fattening are compared with corresponding results from investigations with pigs of the species large white and land race pig. Essential differences concerning parameters of energy metabolism determining the requirement could not be detected.     

Effect of graded high-energy-level protein supply on fattening performance and retention and utilization of feed energy, protein and amino acids in female fattening swine. 4. Nitrogen and amino acid content in carcasses and parts

The slaughtering and cutting up of 7 (6) female pigs in each of 3 groups (live weight approximately 113 kg) fed on approximately 80, 100 and 120% protein (lysine) of the norm as well as the determination of nitrogen and amino acids in the individual parts of the body had--in comparison to 6 reference animals (live weight approximately 36 kg) treated in the same way at the beginning of the experiment--the following results: In the course of growth the quota (in % of the slaughter weight) of bacon, belly fat + intestinal fat tissue is more than doubled; the relative quotas of bones, skin + ears, bristles + claws, blood and entrails, however, decrease. The total meat quota is 54% and remains relatively equal independent of the live weight. The N-quotas (in % of the empty body-N) of muscle and fat tissue and of the skin increase in the course of fattening, those of bones, useable organs and offal decrease distinctly. At the end of fattening the muscle protein of the animals amounted to 59% of the empty body protein and to 87% of the carcass protein. The amino acid content (g/16 g N) hardly changes in the individual parts during growth; the percentage amino acid distribution follows the weight-and N-distribution. The lysine content of the edible parts of the carcass is 8.4 g/16 g N. The chosen grades in the protein (lysine) supply of the test animals did not result in any significant changes with regard to the qualitative parameters (protein and amino acid content of the valuable and less valuable parts of the body as well as their percentage distribution in the empty body). The quantitative parameters (live weight gain, protein (amino acid) retention per day) are diminished in approximately the same relation as the insufficiency of the alimentary supply; by excessive supply, however, they do not significantly increase. The results are compared with corresponding data from literature and discussed.