Early PCR-based detection of Fusarium culmorum,F. graminearum,F. sporotrichioides and F. poae on stem bases of winter wheat throughout Poland

Foot rot and crown rot are fungal diseases of wheat caused by a complex of Fusarium species. They have a huge economic impact mainly due to yield reduction. A survey was conducted to identify four Fusarium species, occurring on wheat stem bases, using species-specific PCR assays in samples collected during spring of 2012. The dominant species was F. graminearum, which was identified in above 64 % of samples. F. culmorum was detected in 15.71 %, F. poae in 15.71 % and F. sporotrichioides in 5.71 % wheat fields. Most of the wheat fields in the eastern Poland were infected with at least one or two of Fusarium species, while in central Poland no Fusarium species were identified in most of the fields. The presence of F. graminearum tends to favor the presence of F. culmorum and this effect was visible also for F. poae and F. sporotrichioides. The frequency of F. graminearum and F. culmorum detections were highest where wheat crops were preceded by maize and in the samples from late sown fields. The opposite observation was made for F. poae and F. sporotrichioides, where the number of detections of these species was higher in samples from early sown fields. The number of detected Fusarium species was significantly lower in samples collected from fields protected with autumn herbicide in comparison to unprotected fields. The rate of autumn N fertilization did not affect the number of Fusarium detections.     

Comparison of pathogenicity of the Fusarium crown rot (FCR) complex (<Emphasis Type="Italic">F. culmorum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">F. pseudograminearum</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">F. graminearum)</Emphasis> on hard red spring and durum wheat

Fusarium species involved in the Fusarium crown rot (FCR) complex affect wheat in every stage of development from seedling to grain fill. This study was designed to compare the aggressiveness of the FCR complex members including F. culmorum, F. pseudograminearum and F. graminearum in causing seedling blight, decreased plant vigour and crown rot. To assess their relative pathogenicity, two hard red spring wheat cultivars and two durum wheat cultivars were inoculated in the field with five isolates from each of the three species for two years. Significant differences in patterns of pathogenicity were identified. In particular, F. culmorum caused greater seedling blight while F. pseudograminearum and F. graminearum caused greater crown rot. Greatest yield reductions were caused by F. pseudograminearum. Cultivar differences were identified with respect to seedling disease and late season crown rot. No interactions were identified between cultivar performance and isolates or species with which they were challenged.     

Biodiversity of Fusarium species in ears and stalks of maize plants in Belgium

In order to investigate the pre-harvest contamination of maize plants by Fusarium species in Belgium, a three-year survey has been performed in five fields in which three hybrids differing in susceptibility to maize stalk rot were sampled at four different physiological stages. An extensive collection of 5,659 Fusarium isolates characterized at the species level was established during the 2005, 2006, and 2007 growing seasons, with a total of 23 different Fusarium species identified to occur on ears and stalks. A high number of plants was already contaminated by Fusarium spp. at the anthesis stage, although no symptoms were visible on ears or on stalks. As the season progressed, the incidence of Fusarium-infected maize plants reached 100% in several fields. At the end of the growing season, the most frequently isolated species in maize ears were F. graminearum, sometimes associated with F. avenaceum, F. crookwellense, F. culmorum, F. poae, and F. temperatum, a new species recently described on maize. The predominant Fusarium species detected in stalks at the end of the growing season were F. graminearum and F. crookwellense, often associated with F. culmorum and F. temperatum. Year-to-year variability observed for the incidence of F. graminearum can most likely be associated with differences in climatic conditions among the three years.     

Morphological and molecular identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species associated with head blight on wheat in East Croatia

Fusarium head blight (FHB) is an important fungal disease of wheat. The aim of this research was to determine the diversity of Fusarium species infecting winter wheat ears in East Croatia. In 2008 wheat kernels were obtained from three locations in the eastern part of Croatia (Tovarnik, Osijek, Pozega), and in 2009 from two additional locations (Slavonski Brod, Nova Gradiska). In total, 498 visually diseased kernels were selected for morphological identification of Fusarium spp. The identity of 226 selected isolates was further investigated by molecular techniques. The predominant species on wheat kernels in East Croatia in 2008 were F. graminearum, isolated and confirmed from more than 80% of sampled wheat kernels, followed by F. avenaceum (8%) and F. culmorum (7%). Incidence of F. poae was less than 2%. The most common species identified in 2009 were F. graminearum (50%), F. culmorum (13%), F. avenaceum (12%) and F. poae (7%). This is the first report on the identification of Fusarium species isolated from naturally infected wheat ears in Croatia.     

Toxigenic Fusarium species and Mycotoxins Associated with Head Blight in Small-Grain Cereals in Europe

The Fusarium species predominantly found associated with Fusarium head blight (FHB) in wheat and other small-grain cereals all over Europe are F. graminearum, F. avenaceum and F. culmorum. Among the less frequently encountered species are several others which are less pathogenic or opportunistic, but also toxigenic. These include F. poae, F. cerealis F. equiseti F. sporotrichioides F. tricinctum and, to a lesser extent, F. acuminatum F. subglutinans F. solani F. oxysporum F. verticillioides F. semitectum and F. proliferatum. The species profile of FHB is due to several factors, primarily climatic conditions, particularly rain and the temperature at flowering stage, but also agronomic factors, such as soil cultivation, nitrogen fertilization, fungicides, crop rotation, and host genotype. The most frequently encountered Fusarium mycotoxins in FHB in Europe has proved to be deoxynivalenol and zearalenone produced by F. graminearum and F. culmorum with the former more common in southern (warmer) and the latter in northern (colder) European areas. Nivalenol was usually found associated with deoxynivalenol and its derivatives (mono-acetyldeoxynivalenols), together with fusarenone-X, formed by F. graminearum F. cerealis F. culmorum and, in northern areas, by F. poae. Moreover, from central to northern European countries, moniliformin has been consistently reported, as a consequence of the widespread distribution of F. avenaceum whereas the occurrence of T-2 toxin derivatives, such as T-2 toxin and HT-2 toxin, and diacetoxyscirpenol have been recorded in conjunction with sporadic epidemics of F. sporotrichioides and F. poae. Finally, beauvericin and various enniatins have recently been found in Finnish wheat colonized by F.avenaceum and F. poae.     

Predominance and association of pathogenic fungi causing Fusarium ear blightin wheat in four European countries

Two years of field sampling aimed to establish the predominance and association among the fungal pathogens causing Fusarium ear blight (FEB) in four European countries (Hungary, Ireland, Italy and the UK). A PCR-based method was used to detect four Fusarium species and two varieties of Microdochium nivale present in the samples. The prevalence of FEB pathogens differed significantly between countries. Overall, all pathogens were commonly detected in Ireland and to a lesser extent in the UK. In contrast, only two species, F. graminearum and F. poae, were regularly detected in Italy and Hungary. Fusarium culmorum was rarely detected except in Ireland. Log-linear models were used to determine whether there is the independence of the six FEB pathogens at each sampling site. Significant two-pathogen interactions were frequently observed, particularly in harvest samples; all these significant two-pathogen interactions were of the synergistic type, except between F. poae and F. culmorum, and were generally consistent over the 2 years and four countries. Fusarium graminearum and F. poae were least frequently involved in two pathogen interactions but were involved in most of the nine significant three-pathogen interactions. However, only the interaction between F. graminearum, F. avenaceum and F. poae was significant in both years. Potential implications of the present results in FEB management are discussed.     

Patterns of Splash Dispersed Conidia of Fusarium poae and Fusarium culmorum

Splash dispersal of Fusarium culmorum and Fusarium poae spores was studied, using inoculated straw placed on tiles as the inoculum source to infect agar strips and artificially produced leaves. In addition, patterns of spread were studied with spores from inoculated artificial leaves onto agar strips. Observed patterns of spore dispersal for each species were indistinguishable, although F. culmorum produced fewer colonies than F. poae. Furthermore, spore dispersal from inoculated straw and artificial leaves were essentially identical, with one exception; colonies arose from single conidia when spread from artificial leaves, but consisted of clumps of conidia when derived from inoculated straw. Splash dispersal patterns of both species onto the upper- and undersides of artificial leaves were different. On the upperside of the leaf, most colonies were found at the tip, while on the underside of the leaf most colonies were found at the base of the leaf. This is the first time that artificially produced leaves have been used in splash dispersal experiments.     

Evaluation of pathogenicity and aggressiveness of <Emphasis Type="Italic">F. langsethiae</Emphasis> on oat and wheat seedlings relative to known seedling blight pathogens

Fusarium and Microdochium species are causal agents of seedling blight of small-grain cereal crops where they may contribute to a significant reduction in crop establishment and final yield. Two experiments were carried out to investigate the potential pathogenicity and aggressiveness of F. langsethiae, a recently identified fungus linked with the contamination of cereals with high levels of the trichothecene mycotoxins, HT-2 and T-2. An artificial seed inoculation method involving conidial suspensions was used and the experiments conducted in a growth cabinet set at either 5 or 15°C with a 12 h photoperiod. Known seedling blight pathogens of the genus Fusarium and Microdochium were used for comparison. At 15oC, F. culmorum, M. nivale and M. majus caused seedling blight of oats and wheat with F. culmorum, on average being the most aggressive than the latter two. At 5oC, only F. culmorum and M. nivale caused seedling blight of oats and wheat. Under the experimental conditions employed, F. langsethiae and F. poae failed to produce seedling blight disease indicating that these two species are not pathogenic to oat and wheat cultivars, Gerald and Claire respectively, at the seedling stage of development. They are therefore unlikely to affect crop establishment and other yield components such as tiller number, grain yield per head as well as grain weight if there is no subsequent foot-rot and/or head blight where infected seeds are sown.     

Major Changes in Fusarium spp. in Wheat in the Netherlands

The re-emergence of fusarium head blight throughout the world and especially in Western Europe prompted a survey of the situation in the Netherlands. To allow for a high throughput screening of large numbers of samples, a diagnostic PCR method was developed to detect the most common species of Fusarium occurring on wheat. Seven primer pairs were tested for their ability to identify isolates of Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum, F. poae, F. proliferatum and Microdochium nivale var. majus and M. nivale var. nivale. Each primer pair only generated a PCR product with the corresponding Fusarium species and all PCR fragments had different molecular sizes. This allowed the generation of these amplicons using a mixture of all seven primer pairs. The robustness of this multiplex PCR encouraged us to screen a large series of isolates collected in 2000 and 2001. In both years 40 fields were sampled leading to a collection of 209 isolates from 2000 and 145 isolates from 2001. The results of the multiplex PCR demonstrated that F. graminearum was the most abundant species in the Fusarium complex on wheat in both years. This is in sharp contrast to reports from the 1980s and early 1990s, which found F. culmorum as the predominant species. Primers derived from the tri7 and tri13 genes, which are implicated in the acetylation and oxygenation of the C-4 atom of the backbone of the trichothecene molecule, were used to discriminate between deoxynivalenol and nivalenol (NIV) producers. The populations of F. culmorum and F. graminearum both showed a slight increase in NIV-producers in 2001.     

Association of Fusarium Species in the Wheat Stem Rot Complex

Data from a national survey were analysed to investigate whether there was interdependence among the Fusarium species, which cause the stem rot complex of wheat. About 25 wheat stems were sampled from each of 260 sites over the main wheat growing areas in the UK. Occurrence of each Fusarium species on individual stems was determined. Fusarium culmorum, F. avenaceum and Microdochium nivale were the three dominant species, detected in 248, 185 and 239 out of the 260 sites. There were no interactions among species in the distribution of the three species over the 260 sites. Several statistical tests were used to determine whether there was interdependence among the three species on the same stem within each site. Of the three species, there was only limited evidence of competition between F. culmorum and F. avenaceum.     

Influence of Climatic Factors on Fusarium Species Pathogenic to Cereals

Fusarium head blight of small-grain cereals, ear rot of maize, seedling blight and foot rot of cereals are important diseases throughout the world. Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum, F. poae, F. avenaceum and Microdochium nivale (formerly known as F. nivale) predominantly cause Fusarium diseases of small-grain cereals. Maize is predominantly attacked by F. graminearum, F. moniliforme, F. proliferatum and F. subglutinans. These species differ in their climatic distribution and in the optimum climatic conditions required for their persistence. This review deals with the influence of climate on the production and dispersal of inocula, growth, competition, mycotoxin production and pathogenicity. Most species produce inocula, grow best, and are most pathogenic to cereal heads at warm temperatures and under humid conditions. However, the optimal conditions for F. moniliforme and F. proliferatum maize ear rot tend to be hot and dry and M. nivale head blight, seedling blight and foot rot of small-grain cereals tend to occur under cooler conditions. Seedling blight and foot rot caused by other species are favoured by warm dry weather. Between them, these fungi produce four important classes of mycotoxins: trichothecenes, zearalenone, fumonisins and moniliformin. Conditions favourable for in vitro growth are also generally the most favourable for mycotoxin production on cereal grains. These fungi rarely exist in isolation, but occur as a complex with each other and with other Fusaria and other fungal genera. Climatic conditions will influence competition between, and the predominance of, different fungi within this complex.     

Studies on in vitro Growth and Pathogenicity of European Fusarium Fungi

The effect of temperature on the in vitro growth rates and pathogenicity of a European Fusarium collection consisting of isolates of Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum, F. avenaceum, F. poae and Microdochium nivale was examined. Irrespective of geographic origin, the optimum temperature for the growth of F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. poae was 25 °C, while that for F. avenaceum and M. nivale was 20 °C. In general, the growth rates of F. graminearum, F. culmorum and F. poae increased between 10 and 25 °C and those of F. avenaceum and M. nivale increased between 10 and 20 °C. Pathogenicity tests were carried out by examining the effect of the five species on the in vitro coleoptile growth rate of wheat seedlings (cv. Falstaff). Irrespective of geographic origin, the temperature at which F. avenaceum, F. culmorum and F. graminearum caused the greatest retardation in coleoptile growth ranges 20–25 °C (>89.3% reduction), whilst for F. poae and M. nivale it was 10–15 °C (>45.6% retardation), relative to uninoculated control seedlings. In general, F. culmorum and F. graminearum were the most pathogenic of the five species, causing at least a 69% reduction in coleoptile growth at 10, 15, 20 and 25 °C. General linear model analysis (GLIM) showed that species accounted for 51.3–63.4% of the variation in isolate growth and from 19.5% to 44.3% of the variation in in vitro pathogenicity. Country of origin contributed from 22.6% to 51.9% to growth rate variation and from 0.73% to 7.61% to pathogenicity variation. The only significant correlation between in vitro growth and pathogenicity was that observed for M. nivale at 15 °C (r = -0.803, P < 0.05).     

Fusarium miscanthi and other Fusarium species as causal agents of Miscanthus × giganteus rhizome rot

In 2010, Miscanthus × giganteus rhizomes were collected from Belgian fields showing emergence reduction and were analyzed for detection and identification of fungal species. All rhizomes were infected by at least one Fusarium species, of which F. culmorum, F. miscanthi, F. crookwellense and F. graminearum were the most abundant. Results of the pathogenicity tests by soil inoculation demonstrate the ability of F. miscanthi, F. culmorum and F. avenaceum to cause rhizome rot disease under greenhouse conditions. This is the first report of F. miscanthi and other Fusarium species isolated from M. × giganteus rhizomes in Belgium.     

Epidemiology of Toxigenic Fungi and their Associated Mycotoxins for Some Mediterranean Crops

Recent data on the epidemiology of the common mycotoxigenic species of Fusarium, Alternaria, Aspergillus and Penicillium in infected or colonized plants, and in stored or processed plant products from the Mediterranean area are reviewed. Emphasis is placed on the toxigenicity of the causal fungal species and the natural occurrence of well known mycotoxins (aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, patulin, Alternaria-toxins and moniliformin), as well as some more recently described compounds (fusaproliferin, beauvericin) whose toxigenic potential is not yet well understood. Several Fusarium species reported from throughout the Mediterranean area are responsible of the formation of mycotoxins in infected plants and in plant products, including: Fusarium graminearum, F. culmorum, F. cerealis, F. avenaceum, F. sporotrichioides and F. poae, which produce deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fusarenone, zearalenone, moniliformin, and T-2 toxin derivatives in wheat and other small grains affected by head blight or scab, and in maize affected by red ear rot. Moreover, strains of F. verticillioides, F. proliferatum, and F. subglutinans, that form fumonisins, beauvericin, fusaproliferin, and moniliformin, are commonly associated with maize affected by ear rot. Fumonisins, were also associated with Fusarium crown and root rot of asparagus and Fusarium endosepsis of figs, caused primarily by F. proliferatum. Toxigenic A. alternata strains and associated tenuazonic acid and alternariols were commonly found in black mould of tomato, black rot of olive and citrus, black point of small cereals, and black mould of several vegetables. Toxigenic strains of A. carbonarius and ochratoxin A were often found associated with black rot of grapes, whereas toxigenic strains of A. flavus and/or P. verrucosum, forming aflatoxins and ochratoxin A, respectively, were found in moulded plant products from small cereals, peanuts, figs, pea, oilseed rape, sunflower seeds, sesame seeds, pistachios, and almonds. Finally, toxigenic strains of P. expansum and patulin were frequently found in apple, pear and other fresh fruits affected by blue mould rot, as well as in derived juices and jams.     

The endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica protects wheat from fusarium crown rot disease in simulated UK autumn conditions

The root endophytic fungus Piriformospora indica (Sebacinacea) forms mutualistic symbioses with a broad range of host plants, increasing their biomass production and resistance to fungal pathogens. This study evaluated the effect of P. indica on fusarium crown rot disease of wheat, under in vitro and glasshouse conditions. Interaction of P. indica and Fusarium isolates under axenic culture conditions indicated no direct antagonistic activity of P. indica against Fusarium isolates. Seedlings of wheat were inoculated with P. indica and pathogenic Fusarium culmorum or F. graminearum and grown in sterilized soil‐free medium or in a non‐sterilized mix of soil and sand. Fusarium alone reduced emergence and led to visible browning and reduced root growth. Roots of seedlings in pots inoculated with both Fusarium isolates and P. indica were free of visible symptoms; seed emergence and root biomass were equivalent to the uninoculated. DNA was quantified by real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). The ratio of FusariumDNA to wheat DNA rose rapidly in the plants inoculated with Fusarium alone; isolates and species were not significantly different. Piriformospora indica inoculation reduced the ratio of Fusarium to host DNA in the root systems. The reduction increased with time. The ratio of P. indica to wheat DNA initially rose but then declined in root systems without Fusarium. With Fusarium, the ratio rose throughout the experiment. The absolute amount of FusariumDNA in root systems increased in the absence of P. indica but was static in plants co‐inoculated with P. indica.     

Toxigenicity and pathogenicity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium poae</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium avenaceum</Emphasis> on wheat

In a field experiment between 2004 and 2006, 14 winter wheat varieties were inoculated with either a mixture of three isolates of F. poae or a mixture of three isolates of F. avenaceum. In a subsequent climate chamber experiment, the wheat variety Apogee was inoculated with individual single conidium isolates derived from the original poly conidium isolates used in the field. Disease symptoms on wheat heads were visually assessed, and the yield as well as the fungal incidence on harvested grains (field only) was determined. Furthermore, grains were analysed using LC-MS/MS to determine the content of Fusarium mycotoxins. In samples from field and climate chamber experiments, 60 to 4,860 μg kg⁻¹ nivalenol and 2,400 to 17,000 μg kg⁻¹ moniliformin were detected in grains infected with F. poae and F. avenaceum, respectively. Overall, isolate mixtures and individual isolates of F. avenaceum proved to be more pathogenic than those of F. poae, leading to a higher disease level, yield reductions up to 25%, and greater toxin contamination. For F. poae, all variables except for yield were strongly influenced by variety (field) and by isolate (climate chamber). For F. avenaceum, variety had a strong effect on all variables, but isolate effects on visual disease were not reflected in toxin production. Correlations between visual symptoms, fungal incidence, and toxin accumulation in grains are discussed.     

Epidemiology of Fusarium Infection and Deoxynivalenol Content in Winter Wheat in the Rhineland, Germany

Details of our long-term research programme concerning the epidemiology of Fusarium spp. and mycotoxin production are summarized. Evaluation of the occurrence of Fusarium spp., mainly on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum), was carried out by investigating Fusarium infection and mycotoxin contamination. Two to 15% of grains were infested during 1995–1998 at three climatologically differing localities of the Rhineland, Germany. Disease progress was accelerated by rainfall during the flowering season. The species most frequently isolated were Fusarium avenaceum, F. poae, F. culmorum and F. graminearum. The mean deoxynivalenol (DON) content varied from 19gkg^–1 (1995) to 310gkg^–1 (1998) and was not always correlated with disease severity. Organic farming systems showed lower rates of infection with ear blight and lower mycotoxin contamination than conventional farming systems.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Fusarium</Emphasis> species complex on maize in Switzerland: occurrence,prevalence, impact and mycotoxins in commercial hybrids under natural infection

The Fusarium species complex of maize kernels and stem pieces as well as mycotoxin contamination of commercial grain maize hybrids for animal feed were evaluated in Switzerland. Throughout 2 years, natural Fusarium infection varied significantly between the years and the locations and it ranged from 0.4% to 49.7% for kernels and from 24.2% to 83.8% for stem pieces. Using the agar plate method, 16 different Fusarium species were isolated from kernels and 15 from stem pieces. The Fusarium species composition, prevalence and impact differed between the north and the south and between kernel and stem piece samples. The dominant species on kernels in the north were F. verticillioides (32.9%), F. graminearum (31.3%), F. proliferatum (7.3%) and F. crookwellense (7.1%), in the south F. verticillioides (57.1%), F. subglutinans (24.6%), F. proliferatum (14.8%) and F. graminearum (1.5%) and on stem pieces F. equiseti (36.0%), F. verticillioides (20.1%), F. graminearum (9.5%), F. crookwellense (6.2%) and F. subglutinans (6.2%). In the south, fumonisin concentration of most hybrids exceeded guidance values for animal feed. Other Fusarium species isolated were F. avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. oxysporum, F. poae, F. sambucinum, F. semitectum, F. sporotrichioides, F. solani, F. tricinctum and F. venenatum. Maize hybrids varied in their susceptibility to Fusarium infection. Because of the high diversity of Fusarium species encountered in Switzerland representing a high toxigenic potential, we propose to screen maize hybrids for resistance against various Fusarium species and examine maize produce for several mycotoxins in order to ensure feed safety.     

Fusarium head blight (FHB) in Flanders: population diversity, inter-species associations and DON contamination in commercial winter wheat varieties

The presence of Fusarium spp. causing Fusarium head blight (FHB) of wheat was studied in Flanders (Belgium) in 2007 and 2008. Symptoms, deoxynivalenol content (DON), Fusarium spp. and trichothecene chemotypes were determined at seven locations on different commercial wheat varieties. Overall, significant differences in disease pressure between locations and varieties were observed within 1 year. In addition, we were able to detect consistent and significant resistance differences among the common varieties both under high disease pressure (2007) and low disease pressure (2008). The accumulation of DON was not related to the presence of F. graminearum but showed a clear correlation with rainfall during and after the period of anthesis. During the two-year survey, characterisation of 756 Fusarium samples by species-specific PCR designated F. poae and F. graminearum as the predominant species in Flanders. Furthermore, most of the ears were colonised by multiple FHB pathogens in 2007 whereas the Fusarium population was less complex in 2008. Log-linear analysis of these multiple (two- and three-way) species interactions revealed a clear correlation between F. poae and several pathogens of the FHB disease complex. Finally, chemotype analysis showed that F. culmorum and F. graminearum were respectively of the NIV chemotype and DON chemotype. 3-ADON and 15-ADON chemotypes occurred in more or less equal amounts within the F. graminearum population both in 2007 and 2008. The congruence of these results with observations throughout Europe are discussed.     

Das Artenspektrum der Gattung Fusarium an Weizen und Roggen in Bayern in den Jahren 2003 und 2004

During the years 2003 and 2004 grains of wheat and rye were examined for the occurrence of different Fusarium species in Bavaria. The data obtained indicate that rye is infected with Fusarium spp. on a lower level than wheat. Overall F. graminearum was the most important Desoxynivalenol (DON) producing species with infected kernels per sample up to 18,5% whereas F. culmorum recedes more in the background. In addition F. poae was detected in high amounts: up to 28,5% kernels per sample were infected. Also the incidence of F. avenaceum was high. In contrast F. equiseti, F. tricinctum, F. sporotrichioides, F. oxysporum and Microdochium nivale were detected to a much lower extent.