Transmembrane molecular pump activity of Niemann-Pick C1 protein

Niemann-Pick C1 (NPC1) disease is characterized by cholesterol accumulation in lysosomes and aberrant feedback regulation of cellular cholesterol homeostasis. We provide evidence that the NPC1 protein has homology with the resistance-nodulation-division (RND) family of prokaryotic permeases and may normally function as a transmembrane efflux pump. Studies of acriflavine loading in normal and NPC1 fibroblasts indicated that NPC1 uses a proton motive force to remove accumulated acriflavine from the endosomal/lysosomal system. Expression of NPC1 in Escherichia coli (i) facilitated the transport of acriflavine across the plasma membrane, causing cytosolic accumulation, and (ii) resulted in transport of oleic acid but not cholesterol or cholesterol-oleate across the plasma membrane. These studies establish NPC1 as a eukaryotic member of the RND permease family.     

Deficient activity of hepatic acid lipase in cholesterol ester storage disease

Absence of lysosomal acid lipase activity in the liver is described in cholesterol ester storage disease and Wolman's disease. This enzyme deficiency may result in the excess hepatic cholesterol ester found in both conditions. However, clinical, genetic, and histopathologic differences suggest that the two conditions are separate diseases not completely explained by deficient enzyme activity.     

Fabry's disease: differentiation between two forms of -galactosidase by myoinositol

Myoinositol appears to be a competitive inhibitor of alpha-galactosidase activity in fibroblasts of normal human skin but not of the residual alpha-galactosidase activity of fibroblasts obtained from patients with Fabry's disease. It is suggested that normal fibroblasts contain two alpha-galactosidases, only one of which is present in cells from patients with Fabry's disease, and that these enzymes can be distinguished by their different Michaelis constants, rates of heat inactivation, and responses to the inhibitor myoinositol.     

LAAT-1 is the lysosomal lysine/arginine transporter that maintains amino acid homeostasis

Defective catabolite export from lysosomes results in lysosomal storage diseases in humans. Mutations in the cystine transporter gene CTNS cause cystinosis, but other lysosomal amino acid transporters are poorly characterized at the molecular level. Here, we identified the Caenorhabditis elegans lysosomal lysine/arginine transporter LAAT-1. Loss of laat-1 caused accumulation of lysine and arginine in enlarged, degradation-defective lysosomes. In mutants of ctns-1 (C. elegans homolog of CTNS), LAAT-1 was required to reduce lysosomal cystine levels and suppress lysosome enlargement by cysteamine, a drug that alleviates cystinosis by converting cystine to a lysine analog. LAAT-1 also maintained availability of cytosolic lysine/arginine during embryogenesis. Thus, LAAT-1 is the lysosomal lysine/arginine transporter, which suggests a molecular explanation for how cysteamine alleviates a lysosomal storage disease.     

A key enzyme in the biogenesis of lysosomes is a protease that regulates cholesterol metabolism

Mucolipidosis II is a severe lysosomal storage disorder caused by defects in the α and β subunits of the hexameric N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphotransferase complex essential for the formation of the mannose 6-phosphate targeting signal on lysosomal enzymes. Cleavage of the membrane-bound α/β-subunit precursor by an unknown protease is required for catalytic activity. Here we found that the α/β-subunit precursor is cleaved by the site-1 protease (S1P) that activates sterol regulatory element-binding proteins in response to cholesterol deprivation. S1P-deficient cells failed to activate the α/β-subunit precursor and exhibited a mucolipidosis II-like phenotype. Thus, S1P functions in the biogenesis of lysosomes, and lipid-independent phenotypes of S1P deficiency may be caused by lysosomal dysfunction.     

Genetic inactivation of the alpha-galactosidase locus in carriers of Fabry's disease

Skin fibroblasts from a patient with Fabry's disease showed deficient activity of alpha-galactosidase. Fibroblasts from his mother and sister had two distinct clonal populations, one with enzymatic activity and the other enzyme deficient. This provides evidence of genetic inactivation at the alpha-galactosidase locus and makes possible the detection of carriers of Fabry's disease even when the enzymatic activity in their leukocytes and uncloned fibroblasts is within the range of controls.     

Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1 protein is critical for intestinal cholesterol absorption

Dietary cholesterol consumption and intestinal cholesterol absorption contribute to plasma cholesterol levels, a risk factor for coronary heart disease. The molecular mechanism of sterol uptake from the lumen of the small intestine is poorly defined. We show that Niemann-Pick C1 Like 1(NPC1L1) protein plays a critical role in the absorption of intestinal cholesterol. NPC1L1 expression is enriched in the small intestine and is in the brush border membrane of enterocytes. Although otherwise phenotypically normal, NPC1L1-deficient mice exhibit a substantial reduction in absorbed cholesterol, which is unaffected by dietary supplementation of bile acids. Ezetimibe, a drug that inhibits cholesterol absorption, had no effect in NPC1L1 knockout mice, suggesting that NPC1L1 resides in an ezetimibe-sensitive pathway responsible for intestinal cholesterol absorption.     

Gaucher's disease: a genetic disease detected in skin fibroblast cultures

Skin fibroblasts from three adult patients with chronic noncerebral Gaucher's disease, three children of one of the patients, three parents, and six normal individuals were grown in cell culture. Giant fibroblasts containing metachromatic material were seen in all cultures derived from affected individuals and heterozygous carriers but not in those derived from normal individuals.     

粒细胞集落刺激因子在羊成纤维细胞中的表达及对细胞增殖和凋亡的影响

【目的】研究粒细胞集落刺激因子（granule cell stimulating factor,GCSF）在羊成纤维细胞体外培养中对其增殖、周期和凋亡的影响,为今后基于羊GCSF为靶标诱导全能干细胞进行分子遗传育种研究提供理论依据。【方法】将羊GCSF真核表达质粒pRTL1-GCSF和对照载体质粒pRTL1分别转染到1×10⁵个细胞/mL的羊成纤维细胞中,培养48 h后,利用Trizol法分别提取总RNA并反转录为cDNA,通过实时荧光定量PCR检测羊GCSF在羊成纤维细胞中的瞬时表达水平。通过GCSF依赖型细胞系NFS-60,利用细胞活力检测试剂alamarBlue测定转染48 h后羊成纤维细胞培养上清中分泌表达的GCSF的生物学活性。通过HEK 293F悬浮培养细胞系真核表达分泌型羊GCSF蛋白后,用Ni-NTA凝胶对细胞表达至细胞培养基中的GCSF蛋白进行纯化,并SDS-PAGE检测。加入纯化的30 ng·mL^-1 GCSF蛋白后在24和48 h时,通过alamarBlue测定羊成纤维细胞的增殖状态,利用流式细胞术检测羊成纤维细胞的细胞周期和凋亡变化。【结果】羊GCSF真核表达质粒转染羊成纤维细胞48 h,检测发现在羊成纤维细胞中GCSF表达量得到显著提高。在羊成纤维细胞中,转染了pRTL1-GCSF质粒的羊GCSF表达量是转染了pRTL1空载对照组的（50 615.92±4 738.83）倍（P<0.01）;羊成纤维细胞瞬时分泌表达的含有GCSF蛋白的培养基上清加入到GCSF依赖型细胞系NFS-60后,试验组和阳性对照组中的NFS-60的荧光强度与阴性对照组和空白对照组相比显著升高（P<0.01）,试验组中的NFS-60的荧光强度与阳性对照组相比均差异不显著（P>0.05）,结果显示羊GCSF能显著刺激NFS-60细胞的增殖,表明在羊成纤维细胞中表达的羊GCSF具有生物学活性。用HEK 293F悬浮培养细胞系真核表达分泌型羊GCSF蛋白后,纯化得到羊GCSF蛋白。在羊成纤维细胞中添加30 ng·mL^-1的羊GCSF后,体外培养24和48 h,GCSF试验组与培养基稀释液对照组相比,细胞活力变化差异不显著,而细胞周期的分布出现显著改变。24 h时,与对照组相比试验组的G1期细胞比例由(55.29±1.68)%增加到(69.37±0.24)%,差异极显著（P<0.01）;S期细胞比例由(15.99±0.38)%变为(15.39±0.60)%,差异不显著（P>0.05）;G2/M期细胞显著增多（P<0.05）,比例由(22.88±1.00)%增大到(26.76±0.82)%。表明在羊成纤维细胞中加入羊GCSF的24 h后,处于分裂状态和间期的细胞显著增多。48 h时,与对照组相比试验组G1期细胞比例由(65.96±0.37)%减少为(45.69±0.26)%,差异极显著（P<0.01）;S期细胞比例由(13.45±1.33)%增加为(37.87±2.43)%,差异极显著（P<0.01）;G2/M期细胞比例由(16.42±1.29)%变为(21.80±1.86)%,差异不显著（P>0.05）。表明加入GCSF的羊成纤维细胞在48 h时,处于间期的细胞显著减少,同时DNA复制状态的细胞显著增多。试验组凋亡率和对照组相比,培养24 h时对照组（Ctr）和试验组（GCSF）的凋亡率分别是(7.51±0.38)%和(9.16±0.46)%。48 h时对照组和试验组的凋亡率分别是(5.73±0.29)%和(5.39±0.27)%。72 h时对照组（Ctr）和试验组（GCSF）的凋亡率分别是(8.88±0.45)%和(5.41±0.27)%,24 h和72 h凋亡率差异极显著（P<0.01）,48 h检测时凋亡率差异不显著（P>0.05）,表明在GCSF添加的24 h内促进了细胞凋亡,随着时间的延长,细胞的凋亡受到抑制。【结论】羊成纤维细胞中可以瞬时过量表达羊GCSF,并具有生物学活性。GCSF不影响羊成纤维细胞的增殖,但可调控其周期,影响细胞凋亡。该结果为今后通过羊成纤维细胞介导GCSF培育具有高免疫力、高抗病性的羊进行分子遗传育种奠定了基础。     

Impaired degradation of mutant alpha-synuclein by chaperone-mediated autophagy

Aberrant alpha-synuclein degradation is implicated in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis because the protein accumulates in the Lewy inclusion bodies associated with the disease. Little is known, however, about the pathways by which wild-type alpha-synuclein is normally degraded. We found that wild-type alpha-synuclein was selectively translocated into lysosomes for degradation by the chaperone-mediated autophagy pathway. The pathogenic A53T and A30P alpha-synuclein mutants bound to the receptor for this pathway on the lysosomal membrane, but appeared to act as uptake blockers, inhibiting both their own degradation and that of other substrates. These findings may underlie the toxic gain-of-function by the mutants.     

Defect in vitamin B12 release from lysosomes: newly described inborn error of vitamin B12 metabolism

Cultured diploid fibroblasts from a patient with a previously undescribed inborn error of cobalamin metabolism accumulate unmetabolized, nonprotein-bound vitamin B12 in lysosomes. These cells are able to endocytose the transcobalamin II-B12 complex and to release B12 from transcobalamin II. The freed vitamin B12 is not released from lysosomes into the cytoplasm of the cell. This suggests that there is a specific lysosomal transport mechanism for vitamin B12 in the human.     

Deposits of amyloid beta protein in the central nervous system of transgenic mice.

Alzheimer's disease is characterized by widespread deposition of amyloid in the central nervous system. The 4-kilodalton amyloid beta protein is derived from a larger amyloid precursor protein and forms amyloid deposits in the brain by an unknown pathological mechanism. Except for aged nonhuman primates, there is no animal model for Alzheimer's disease. Transgenic mice expressing amyloid beta protein in the brain could provide such a model. To investigate this possibility, the 4-kilodalton human amyloid beta protein was expressed under the control of the promoter of the human amyloid precursor protein in two lines of transgenic mice. Amyloid beta protein accumulated in the dendrites of some but not all hippocampal neurons in 1-year-old transgenic mice. Aggregates of the amyloid beta protein formed amyloid-like fibrils that are similar in appearance to those in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease.     

OSBP is a cholesterol-regulated scaffolding protein in control of ERK 1/2 activation

Oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP) is the founding member of a family of sterol-binding proteins implicated in vesicle transport, lipid metabolism, and signal transduction. Here, OSBP was found to function as a cholesterol-binding scaffolding protein coordinating the activity of two phosphatases to control the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathway. Cytosolic OSBP formed a approximately 440-kilodalton oligomer with a member of the PTPPBS family of tyrosine phosphatases, the serine/threonine phosphatase PP2A, and cholesterol. This oligomer had dual specific phosphatase activity for phosphorylated ERK (pERK). When cell cholesterol was lowered, the oligomer disassembled and the level of pERK rose. The oligomer also disassembled when exposed to oxysterols. Increasing the amount of OSBP oligomer rendered cells resistant to the effects of cholesterol depletion and decreased the basal level of pERK. Thus, cholesterol functions through its interaction with OSBP outside of membranes to regulate the assembly of an oligomeric phosphatase that controls a key signaling pathway in the cell.     

Mutant enzymatic and cytological phenotypes in cultured human fibroblasts

Fibroblasts were cultured from the cells of two children who shared some characteristics of Hurler syndrome, but they did not show corneal clouding and excessive excretion of mucopolysaccharides. The fibroblasts differ from those of controls and of patients with typical Hurler syndrome or other mucopolysaccharidoses in that they have abundant cytoplasmic inclusions, striking diminutions in beta-glucuronidase, and elevations in acid phosphatase.     

Binding of GGA2 to the lysosomal enzyme sorting motif of the mannose 6-phosphate receptor

The GGAs are a multidomain protein family implicated in protein trafficking between the Golgi and endosomes. Here, the VHS domain of GGA2 was shown to bind to the acidic cluster-dileucine motif in the cytoplasmic tail of the cation-independent mannose 6-phosphate receptor (CI-MPR). Receptors with mutations in this motif were defective in lysosomal enzyme sorting. The hinge domain of GGA2 bound clathrin, suggesting that GGA2 could be a link between cargo molecules and clathrin-coated vesicle assembly. Thus, GGA2 binding to the CI-MPR is important for lysosomal enzyme targeting.     

Localization of amyloid beta protein messenger RNA in brains from patients with Alzheimer's disease

The distribution of cells containing messenger RNA that encodes amyloid beta protein was determined in hippocampi and in various cortical regions from cynomolgus monkeys, normal humans, and patients with Alzheimer's disease by in situ hybridization. Both 35S-labeled RNA antisense and sense probes to amyloid beta protein messenger RNA were used to ensure specific hybridization. Messenger RNA for amyloid beta protein was expressed in a subset of neurons in the prefrontal cortex from monkeys, normal humans, and patients with Alzheimer's disease. This messenger RNA was also present in the neurons of all the hippocampal fields from monkeys, normal humans and, although to a lesser extent in cornu ammonis 1, patients with Alzheimer's disease. The distribution of amyloid beta protein messenger RNA was similar to that of the neurofibrillary tangles of Alzheimer's disease in some regions, but the messenger RNA was also expressed in other neurons that are not usually involved in the pathology of Alzheimer's disease.     

Biallelic inactivation of BRCA2 in Fanconi anemia

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare autosomal recessive cancer susceptibility disorder characterized by cellular hypersensitivity to mitomycin C (MMC). Six FA genes have been cloned, but the gene or genes corresponding to FA subtypes B and D1 remain unidentified. Here we show that cell lines derived from FA-B and FA-D1 patients have biallelic mutations in BRCA2 and express truncated BRCA2 proteins. Functional complementation of FA-D1 fibroblasts with wild-type BRCA2 complementary DNA restores MMC resistance. Our results link the six cloned FA genes with BRCA1 and BRCA2 in a common pathway. Germ-line mutation of genes in this pathway may result in cancer risks similar to those observed in families with BRCA1 or BRCA2 mutations.     

Solution structure of the integral human membrane protein VDAC-1 in detergent micelles

The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC) mediates trafficking of small molecules and ions across the eukaryotic outer mitochondrial membrane. VDAC also interacts with antiapoptotic proteins from the Bcl-2 family, and this interaction inhibits release of apoptogenic proteins from the mitochondrion. We present the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) solution structure of recombinant human VDAC-1 reconstituted in detergent micelles. It forms a 19-stranded beta barrel with the first and last strand parallel. The hydrophobic outside perimeter of the barrel is covered by detergent molecules in a beltlike fashion. In the presence of cholesterol, recombinant VDAC-1 can form voltage-gated channels in phospholipid bilayers similar to those of the native protein. NMR measurements revealed the binding sites of VDAC-1 for the Bcl-2 protein Bcl-x(L), for reduced beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, and for cholesterol. Bcl-x(L) interacts with the VDAC barrel laterally at strands 17 and 18.     

Lipid research. Possible new way to lower cholesterol

Clinicians may soon be able to mount a multipronged attack against cholesterol, the artery-clogging lipid whose buildup in the body is a major contributor to heart attacks and other cardiovascular diseases. In work reported on page 1524, a team has pinpointed a biological master switch in mice that controls three pathways that work together to both rid the body of excess cholesterol and prevent its absorption from the intestine. The work suggests a new mechanism for reducing cholesterol, for example, with drugs that turn up the activity of the master switch, a protein known as the retinoid X receptor.