Contamination of internationally traded wheat by herbicide‐resistant Lolium rigidum

As herbicide‐resistant weeds have spread in the agricultural fields of grain‐exporting countries, their seeds could be introduced into other countries as contaminants in imported grain. The spread of resistance genes through seed and pollen can cause significant economic loss. In order to assess the extent of the problem, we investigated the contamination by herbicide‐resistant annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) of wheat imported from Western Australia into Japan. Annual ryegrass seeds were recovered from wheat shipments and seed bioassays were conducted to identify resistance to the herbicides that are commonly used in Australia: diclofop‐methyl, sethoxydim, chlorsulfuron, and glyphosate. Nearly 4500 ryegrass seeds were detected in 20 kg of wheat that was imported in both 2006 and 2007. About 35% and 15% of the seeds were resistant to diclofop‐methyl, 5% and 6% were resistant to sethoxydim, and 56% and 60% were resistant to chlorsulfuron in 2006 and 2007, respectively. None was resistant to glyphosate in either year. As the contamination of crops by herbicide‐resistant weeds is probably a common phenomenon, the monitoring of incoming grain shipments is necessary to stem the further spread of herbicide‐resistant weeds into importing countries.     

Composition of floating weed seeds in lowland rice fields in China and the effects of irrigation frequency and previous crops

The diversity and composition of floating weed seed communities were surveyed in 27 sites across the main rice-growing regions in China with the aim of better understanding weed seed dispersal via irrigation water. Seed of 74 species, belonging to 20 families, were identified from floating matter on the water surface in lowland rice fields. Thirty-five species from three families: Poaceae (15), Asteraceae (11), and Polygonaceae (9), accounted for 47% of all species identified. Species with seed maturing in the summer accounted for 64% of the weed seed and their mean relative abundance was 0.74. Species richness, Shannon–Wiener index and Pielou evenness index were significantly different among the floating weed seed communities. The diversity of weed seed communities in the Yangtze river valley was higher than that in other sites, and some sites were dominated by only a few weed species, such as Beckmannia syzigachne , Alopecurus aequalis , A. japonicus , and Polypogon fugax. At all sites, the dominant weed seeds reflected the dominant weed species in the previous crop. The 27 sample sites of weed seed communities can be clustered into two groups on the basis of previous crop, either lowland rice or sites with previous crops of winter fallow, winter wheat or oilseed rape. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) revealed that irrigation frequency, previous crop, and latitude, but not soil type or longitude, significantly affected species composition. The numbers of floating weed seed species were high in lowland rice fields; composition was affected by previous crops and irrigation frequency. Filtering irrigation water and collecting and removing floating weed seeds from the water surface could be integrated into weed management practices to control weeds in lowland rice fields.     

Secondary dispersal, spatial dynamics and effects of herbicides on reproductive capacity of a recently introduced population of Bromus sterilis in an arable field

An arable field was subdivided and subjected to either deep inversion ploughing or non‐inversion cultivation after viable seeds of Bromus sterilis had been sown into oilseed rape stubble. After sowing in isolated plots distributed within the field, sequences of cropping treatments for the establishment of two successive winter wheat crops were applied. Each subfield was split into an uphill and a downhill direction for soil cultivation. The field had a 10° slope. In the season following seed introduction, 2.6% of the introduced seeds had successfully germinated and established in the non‐inversion cultivation regime, when no effective graminicide was applied. Ploughing eradicated B. sterilis. Using differential global positioning system (DGPS) mapping of the whole field population, emerged plants were observed up to 8.7 m (uphill treatment) and 21.3 m (downhill treatment) of their initial source. The median distance seeds were transported was 2.3 m uphill and 4.8 m downhill. Post‐emergence application of the herbicide propoxycarbazone slightly reduced weed density and seed weight, and almost halved weed seed production. Application of fenoxaprop‐P‐ethyl was followed by higher density of plants, tillers and seeds of B. sterilis. Seed viability was unaffected by herbicide use. Thus, in the second wheat crop following seed rain, the weed population was dispersed more widely in the field, such that 20–30% of seeds were dispersed more than 5 m distance from the first year's foci of infestation. The relevance of soil cultivation to secondary dispersal of B. sterilis is discussed.     

Establishment of Lolium species resistant to acetolactate synthase‐inhibiting herbicide in and around grain‐importation ports in Japan

Compared with natural seed dispersal, human‐mediated seed dispersal could spread herbicide resistance genes on a much larger scale. Herbicide‐resistant weed seeds have been reported as contaminants in commercial grain. We investigated the contamination of seeds of Lolium species with target‐site mutations conferring resistance to acetolactate synthase (ALS)‐inhibiting herbicides in wheat imported from the USA, Canada and Australia into Japan. We also investigated the establishment of ALS‐inhibiting herbicide‐resistant Lolium species in 12 seaports in Japan that are major entry points for international commodities. We found herbicide‐resistant Lolium spp. seeds from all classes of wheat samples. Resistant individuals became established at six of eight ports where more than 50 kt of imported wheat is unloaded every year. The establishment of resistant Lolium spp. individuals was common at major grain landing ports. Monitoring over 3 years at one port revealed that the frequency of resistant individuals did not fluctuate between years. Many resistant individuals were distributed in front of the entrance of a fodder company, but a few resistant individuals were found in areas 2 km away from the port. The results indicate that gene flow is rare through pollen or seed movement from resistant plants to peripheral populations. Further extensive and long‐term monitoring is necessary to perform a comprehensive risk assessment of herbicide‐resistant plants entering Japan through major commercial ports.     

Reducing intrarow weed numbers in row crops by means of a biennial cultivation system

Intrarow weed emergence in row crops can be reduced by means of a biennial cultivation system that is based on an exhaustion of the weed seedbank in the upper soil layer of crop‐free bands established in a preceding cereal crop, year I, before the row crop, year II. In this study, a series of field experiments is presented focusing more specifically on the influence of prevention of weed seed shedding and of different cultivation tactics in the system on intrarow weed emergence in the bands in year II. As the system excludes inverting soil tillage between years I and II, the prevention of weed seed shedding in year I turned out to be a key factor in achieving the desired effect of the system. This was seen with spring barley grown in year I, but not with winter wheat, where the system actually resulted in an increase in intrarow weed numbers in spite of the measures taken in year I. Cultivating the crop‐free bands in spring barley in year I with conventional goose‐foot shares in order to enhance seed germination and mortality further had no significant effects regardless of time and intensity. Results from two other experiments, in which freshly shed weed seeds were incorporated into the soil, supported the finding that cultivating the bands was of no advantage.     

The role of arable weed seeds for agroecosystem functioning

A literature study was conducted to gather knowledge on the impact of weed seeds on agroecosystem functioning other than effects related to the production of weed seedlings and plants. The results of the review suggested that a larger and more diverse weed seedbank can contribute to the biodiversity of various groups of macrofauna and microbiota, with a positive or negative impact on the agroecosystem. However, relationships between weed seed availability and functional biodiversity in the field have generally not been established, with the exception of case studies of seeds sustaining populations of granivorous farmland birds or acting as reservoirs and vectors of plant pathogens. To value the contribution of different weed seeds to sustaining populations of functional biota, more detailed information on their relationships with seeds is essential. Hypotheses and related questions that can be used to explore the impact of weed seeds on functional biodiversity have been identified. The identification of weed seed species that are a key to sustaining functional biota may lead to a weed management strategy aiming to minimise the damage of weeds to crops while taking the alternative ecological roles of weed seeds into account.     

进境美国高粱携带杂草种子萌发率测定

收集并整理2014~2016年从黄埔和南沙口岸进境美国高粱中截获的杂草种子,对截获频次进行统计,并对截获频次较高的9种检疫性杂草、14种非检疫性杂草进行萌发试验,结果表明,供试杂草种子几乎均能萌发,且萌发率较高,如长芒苋和裂叶牵牛萌发率达58%以上、糙果苋19.17%、假高粱和豚草的萌发率也达到7.50%和5.00%。因此要重视美国高粱中携带的杂草种子检疫以及杂草监测工作,防止这些杂草种子的定殖传播。     

Invasiveness of agronomic weed species in wheat in Western Australia

Weed seeds are introduced to agronomic systems naturally or through human-mediated seed dispersal, and introduced seeds have a high chance of being resistant to selective, in-crop herbicides. However, colonisation (invasion) rates for a weed species are usually much lower than rates of seed dispersal. The current research investigated colonisation of a winter annual wheat cropping system in Western Australia by a range of winter or summer annual weed species. The weed seeds were sown (at 100 seeds/m²) directly before seeding the crop in 2016 and allowed to grow in the following 3 years of wheat. Selective herbicides were not applied, to simulate growth of weed populations if the initial seed had been resistant to herbicide. Bromus diandrus, Hordeum leporinum, Rumex hypogaeus, Sonchus oleraceus, Polygonum aviculare, Lolium rigidum, Citrullus amarus and Tribulus terrestris colonised the crop, while Dactyloctenium radulans, Chloris truncata and Salsola australis failed to establish over 3 years. The most successful weed was B. diandrus, with a plant density of 1,170/m² by the third year and seed production of 67,740/m². The high density of B. diandrus reduced wheat density by 76% in the third year and reduced average yield by 36%. Lolium rigidum reduced average yield by 11%, and the other weed species did not affect crop yield. Further research is required on the invasiveness of these species in other regions, but it is clear that the spread of B. diandrus to new areas or the introduction of resistant B. diandrus seeds via contaminated grain should be avoided.     

Phalaris minor seedbank studies: longevity, seedling emergence and seed production as affected by tillage regime

Studies were conducted to investigate seed longevity, seedling emergence and seed production of the weed Phalaris minor in wheat in northern India. The longevity of P. minor seeds buried in bags in the field was often limited to less than 1 year, although many seeds buried at 30 cm depth in a rice–wheat rotation remained viable for longer. The application of direct seeding in wheat reduced the seedling emergence rate of P. minor , when compared with conventional ploughing and sowing. However, a larger P. minor seedbank in the upper soil layer in plots under direct seeding partly reversed this positive effect in one of the two studies. Besides differences in relative distribution of weed seeds through the soil profile, it was likely that other factors such as reduced soil disturbance and soil characteristics associated with the application of direct seeding were also involved in regulating the emergence rate. Mature P. minor plants in wheat were found to invest a stable part (27%) of their aboveground biomass in seed, so that total seed weight was strongly linearly correlated with the aboveground biomass of the mother plant. Individual seed weight, however, was little affected by the weight of the mother plant.     

毒麦及其变种籽实分类的研究

关于毒麦的为害,很早就有記述。人与牲畜吃了毒麦都会中毒。毒麦传入我国繁生麦田,在一些地区已造成損害。毒麦的籽实同麦粒的大小和重量相近,很不容易进行机械清除。毒麦及其变种依靠籽实传布,常混杂麦粒难以鑑別。因此,毒麦及其变种籽实的鑑定与分类,对于检疫工作,显得很重要。本文就1950—1964年間,对我国已发生的毒麦,进行鑑定与分类。根据毒麦的穗、小穗,带稃籽实(颖果)及脫粒籽实的基本特征,主要是与种子分类有关的形态学上的特征,进行分析比较与描述。按鑑定的毒麦及其变种,編制籽实分类检索表,并附实物照片与插图。     

The effect of crop,cultivation and seed addition for birds on surface weed seed densities in arable crops during winter

Weed seeds present an agronomic threat, but are also an important food resource for wildlife in winter. Weed seed densities on the soil surface in winter were examined from 1999 to 2002 in 105 fields on three different farms in UK. The effect of the preceding crop, cultivation, position within the field and the application of seed for birds (bird seed) on surface seed abundance and species composition was tested. Six or fewer species comprised c. 80% of the weed seeds. By January of each study year, the densities of seeds important for farmland birds (key seeds) were 73% or 87% lower compared with early winter on two of the farms, but were stable on the third where seeds were incorporated through cultivation. At the edge and mid‐field, seed densities only exceeded 400 m^?2 in 17%, 10% and 12% of fields for total, key and dicotyledonous seeds respectively. The preceding crop only affected seed densities at one site; stubbles of winter barley had fewer seeds compared with winter wheat or spring barley. Seed densities varied between the edge and mid‐field, but trends were inconsistent between sites. The density of the larger seeds (Atriplex patula, Viola arvensis, Polygonum aviculare and Chenopodium album) were reduced in fields receiving bird seed. The objectives of weed control and conservation may not be mutually exclusive because seed return was most reduced where the ground remained uncultivated through the winter, yet this also provided the best foraging opportunities for surface feeding seed predators.     

Biology of Commelina benghalensis L. in south-eastern Queensland. 1. Growth, development and seed production

Experiments conducted at Kingaroy in southeastern Queensland, investigated growth, development and seed production of Commelina benghalensis L. a weed of field crops, which produces aerial and underground flowers. Plants were grown from four seed types (large and small seeds from the two types of flowers) in pots exposed to the weather and in the field. Development was faster, and growth and seed production were greater in the field than in pots. Plants grown from aerial seeds were smaller, developed aerial flowers earlier, and produced more aerial fruits than plants grown from underground seeds. Rhizomes and underground flowers began to develop 6 weeks after emergence on plants from all seed types, prior to the development of aerial flowers. Seed production in the field was 8000 m^?2 for plants grown from underground seeds and 12000 m^?2 for plants grown from aerial seeds. Small aerial seeds represented 73–79% of the total seed production, large aerial seeds 19–22%, and underground seeds only 1–3%.     

Weed seeds in long-term dryland tillage and cropping system plots

Successful crop production depends on effective weed control. Weed seedbanks were determined after 12 years of dryland cropping with winter wheat and grain sorghum under different tillage methods (no- and stubble mulch) and cropping sequences. Seeds of 12 species were detected. Amaranthus retroflexus was most abundant, but seed numbers were similar under all conditions. Portulaca oleracea , Panicum capillare , Setaria viridis and Sorghum halepense seed numbers differed because of some factors, with those for P. oleracea being greatest. For others, seed numbers were low (≤0.11 kg⁻¹ soil), except for Digitaria sanguinalis with 7.8 kg⁻¹ soil and Bromus japonicus with 1.3 kg⁻¹ soil. Most seeds were near the surface with both tillage methods, with enough present under most conditions to cause a problem if proper control measures were not used, especially with continuous cropping. When a weed problem occurs under conditions as in this study, the results indicate that it could be reduced by growing winter and summer crops in rotation, which permits controlling weeds with tillage and/or herbicides when a crop is not growing. Other possibilities for controlling weeds under conditions as in this study are to alternate between dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous crops, which would permit use of a wider range of herbicides, and to use selective in-crop herbicides.     

Improved management of Avena ludoviciana and Phalaris paradoxa with more densely sown wheat and less herbicide

Summary The effectiveness of crop competition for better weed control and reducing herbicide rates was determined for Avena ludoviciana and Phalaris paradoxa . Four experiments, previously broadcast with seeds of the two weeds in separate plots, were sown with three wheat densities, and emerged weeds were treated with four herbicide doses (0–100% of recommended rate). The measured crop and weed traits were first analysed across experiments for treatment effects. Grain yield and weed seed production data were then analysed using cubic smoothing splines to model the response surfaces. Although herbicide rate for both weeds and crop density for P. paradoxa had significant linear effects on yield, there was a significant non-linearity of the response surface. Similarly, herbicide rate and crop density had significant linear effects on weed seed production, and there was significant non-linearity of the response surface that differed for the weed species. Maximum crop yield and reduction in seed production of P. paradoxa was achieved with approximately 80 wheat plants m⁻² and weeds treated with 100% herbicide rate. For A. ludoviciana , this was 130 wheat plants m⁻² applied with 75% herbicide rate. Alternatively, these benefits were achieved by increasing crop density to 150 plants m⁻² applied with 50% herbicide rate. At high crop density, application of the 100% herbicide rate tended to reduce yield, particularly with the A. ludoviciana herbicide, and this impacted adversely on the suppression of weed seed production. Thus, more competitive wheat crops have the potential for improving weed control and reducing herbicide rates.     

基于CFD-DEM的胡麻风筛式清选装置仿真分析与试验

为阐明胡麻脱粒物料在振动筛上实际的筛分效果,采用CFD-DEM耦合方法,对胡麻脱粒物料在胡麻联合收获机风筛式清选装置中的清选效果进行研究,探究鱼鳞筛开口角度、气流速度、清选筛振动频率以及清选筛振幅对清选效果的影响,并通过统计胡麻籽粒含杂率和清选损失率来衡量不同工作参数下分离清选装置的工作性能。仿真试验结果表明：鱼鳞筛开口角度最优为30°,鱼鳞筛透筛率为79.77%,茎秆透筛率为65.52%,籽粒透筛率为90.01%;振动筛振动幅度最优为15 mm,胡麻籽粒损失率为3.6%,籽粒含杂率为3.4%;振动筛振动频率最优为6 Hz,清选损失率为3.5%,籽粒含杂率为3.4%;风机风速最优为5.5 m·s^-1,籽粒含杂率为3.2%,清选损失率为3.0%。结合优化工作参数进行大田作业性能验证试验,通过对机收后的收集物料测定试验指标可知,总清选损失率为3.58%,籽粒含杂率为3.16%,大田试验结果与仿真模拟结果基本一致。机收后的胡麻籽粒外形完整,破损现象较少,含杂率与总损失率均达到相关试验标准要求,表明优化后的参数满足胡麻联合收获标准要求。     

Relative importance of crop seed, manure and irrigation water as sources of weed infestation

Three possible sources of field contamination by weed seeds were studied during 1983–86 in two areas of Fars Province, Iran. These sources were crop seed, irrigation water and sheep manure. Manure was found to be the most important, adding almost 10 million seeds ha^?1 at each application. Farmer-saved seed of wheat, the main crop of the area, added an average of 182,000 weed seeds ha^?1. Irrigation water added no more than 120 seeds ha^?1, but was able to carry seeds over long distances without affecting viability.     

Minimal soil disturbance combined with spring cropping can halt soil seedbank accumulation of Alopecurus myosuroides

The basic mechanism of soil inversion tillage for control of annual weeds is based on the vertical translocation of weed seeds from the soil surface to deeper soil layers. Buried weed seeds either remain dormant in the soil seedbank and are exposed to biological and chemical decay mechanisms, or they germinate but the seedlings cannot reach the soil surface (fatal germination). However, depending on the seed biology of the respective target species, frequent inversion tillage can lead to a build-up of the soil seedbank. For soil seedbank depletion based on available knowledge of the biology of Alopecurus myosuroides seeds, soil inversion tillage is suggested to be reduced to every third or fourth year with reduced or even no-tillage (direct seeding) in between (rotational inversion tillage systems). Including spring crops in the crop rotation could further help dampening the population growth and hence the seed return into the seedbank. This study investigated the effect of rotational inversion tillage in combination with reduced tillage or direct seeding on the soil seedbank and population development of A. myosuroides. In a long-term field trial, set up in 2012, these tillage strategies were compared with continuous inversion tillage in a 3-year crop rotation with two consecutive years of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) followed by spring barley (Hordeum vulgare). The results showed a significant decline in the soil seedbank following the spring crop, irrespective of the tillage system. The continuous inversion tillage system and inversion tillage before spring cropping with reduced tillage (shallow tillage with a disc harrow) before winter wheat both led to accumulation of seeds in the soil seedbank. In contrast, inversion tillage before spring cropping with direct seeding of winter wheat depleted the soil seedbank significantly after only one crop rotation. Although only covering one intensively studied field site, these findings highlight the need for diversified cropping systems and indicate potential avenues for reducing soil tillage while controlling economically important weeds.     

Increased density and spatial uniformity increase weed suppression by spring wheat

It has been hypothesized that increased crop density and spatial uniformity can increase weed suppression and thereby play a role in weed management. Field experiments were performed over 2 years to investigate the effects of the density and spatial arrangement of spring wheat (Triticum aestivum) on weed biomass and wheat yield in weed-infested fields. We used three crop spatial patterns (normal rows, random and uniform) and three densities (204, 449 and 721 seeds m⁻²), plus a fourth density (1000 seeds m⁻²) in the random pattern. Increased crop density reduced weed biomass in all three patterns. Weed biomass was lower and crop biomass higher in wheat sown in the random and uniform patterns than in normal rows in both years. At 449 seeds m⁻², weed biomass was 38% lower in the uniform and 27% lower in the random pattern than in rows. There was evidence of decreasing grain yield due to intraspecific competition only at 1000 seeds m⁻². The results not only confirm that increasing density and increasing crop spatial uniformity increase the suppression of weeds, but also suggest that a very high degree of spatial uniformity may not be necessary to achieve a major increase in weed suppression by cereal crops. Rows represent a very high degree of spatial aggregation. Decreasing this aggregation increased weed suppression almost as much as sowing the crop in a highly uniform spatial pattern. While the random pattern produced as much crop biomass and suppressed weeds almost as well as the uniform pattern, the uniform pattern gave the highest yield.     

Suppression of weeds and weed seeds in the soil by stubbles and no-tillage in an arid maize-winter wheat-common vetch rotation on the Loess Plateau of China

Reduced tillage provides ecological and economic benefits to arable land on the Loess Plateau of China, where soil erosion has long been a serious problem and soil water availability is largely restricted. However, high abundances of weeds in reduced tillage systems cause significant yield losses. In this study, we explored the effects of no-tillage and stubble retention on the number and density of weeds and weed seeds in a 12-year maize-winter wheat-common vetch rotation on the Loess Plateau. Four treatments including conventional tillage, no-tillage, conventional tillage+stubble retention and no-tillage+stubble retention were designed and applied. We found that no-tillage increased the number of weed species and weed density in most of the crops, while stubble retention decreased weed density in maize and tended to suppress weeds in both no-tillage treatments(no-tillage and no-tillage+stubble retention). No-tillage led to an increase in the number of weed species in the weed seedbank and tended to increase seed density during the spring growth of winter wheat, but it decreased seed density during post-vetch fallow. Stubble retention tended to reduce seed density during the spring growth of winter wheat and post-vetch fallow. We concluded that no-tillage can promote weeds in the experimental crop rotation, while stubble retention suppresses weeds in untilled fields. The combined effects of stubble retention and no-tillage on weed suppression varied among the three crops. Based on these results, we recommend stubble retention in untilled legume-crop rotations on the Loess Plateau to improve the control of weeds.     

Seed production and subsequent seed germination of Senecio vulgaris (groundsel) grown alone or in autumn-sown crops

Senecio vulgaris is a common weed of agriculture in the UK, but is also of food value to invertebrates and birds. Thus, it may be beneficial to retain it within agricultural ecosystems to enhance overall biodiversity. A less intensive approach to weed management requires a sound understanding of weed population dynamics so as to avoid unacceptable population growth. Experiments were carried out in 2003 and 2004 to assess seed production, and subsequent germination, by S. vulgaris growing alone, in winter wheat, or in winter field beans. Plant and seed samples were collected during May and June. There was a strong allometric relationship between capsule number and plant weight, irrespective of the year or the presence of crop competition. Numbers of seeds/capsule varied slightly from 51 to 66 seeds per capsule. Plants growing alone were estimated to produce 8471 to 12 887 seeds per plant, whilst those in wheat only 923 to 2156. Germination tests in Petri dishes in incubators showed that virtually all seeds were viable and germinated under daily alternating light:dark conditions within 10 days. Seeds in continuous dark germinated less readily, reaching only 30% after 21 days. On the basis of this and other published work, it would appear that the retention of S. vulgaris in arable fields will not pose a major threat to the long-term viability of crop production.