Food habits of sika deer as assessed by fecal analysis in Mt. Ohdaigahara,central Japan

Food habits of sika deer,Cervus nippon centralis temminck, in Mt. Ohdaigahara, central Japan, were investigated by the fecal analysis method from September, 1990, to June, 1991. The fecal analysis showed that the percentage ofSasa nipponica Makino et Shibata in the fecal composition was approximately 50% throughout the year, indicating that it was the main food plant. Bark and twigs were also found in the feces in all seasons, suggesting that the deer ate bark throughout the year. Even though the amount of the bark eaten per capita was small, the high density of deer may possibly cause serious bark damage. Barking can be one of the main causes of the mortality ofPicea jezoensis Sieb. et Zucc. var.hondoensis (Mayr) Rehder andAbies homolepis Sieb. et Zucc. in Mt. Ohdaigahara. A part of this study was presented at the 105th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Forestry Society (1994).     

Wood identification of JapaneseCyclobalanopsis species (Fagaceae) based on DNA polymorphism of the intergenic spacer betweentrnT andtrnL 5′ exon

DNA was extracted from wood samples of six representativeCyclobalanopsis species (Fagaceae) growing in Japan that cannot be distinguished from one another by conventional microscopy. A part of the intergenic spacer region betweentrnT andtrnT 5 exon was amplified and sequenced. The sequences obtained from wood samples were grouped into three DNA types by a single nucleotide polymorphism as reported previously in leaf samples: I (Quercus acuta, Q. sessilifolia, Q. salicina), II (Q. myrsinaefolia, Q. glauca), and III (Q. gilva). Thus,Q. gilva can be distinguished from the otherQuercus species, and the others are separated in two subgroups based on DNA polymorphism. The present findings support the possibility of wood identification based on DNA polymorphism.     

Boring activity on coniferous tree branches byXylotrechus villioni (Villard) larvae (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

In anAbies homolepis Sieb. et Zucc. forest at Matsumoto, Nagano Pref., cumulative damage byXylotrechus villioni (Villard) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) was observed on tree branches. Of the 14 major branches in one sample tree, six had cumulative damage by boring larvae, of which 3 had been bored by multiple larvae. No adult emergence holes were found on the whole tree, suggesting very low survivorship from boring larva to emerging adult. Galleries made by single larvae were often observed to be terminated by a depression apparently carved by a picid woodpecker, suggesting that they are important predators of the cerambycid. The manner of cicatrix formation with phloem tissue over the larval gallery in anAbies veitchii Lindl. branch at Mt. Fuji, Yamanashi Pref. is presented. Studies onXylotrechus villioni (Villard) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), a primary borer of coniferous trees in Japan (III). This work was presented at the 104th Annual Meeting of Japanese Forestry Society at Morioka (April, 1993) and 20th International Congress of Entomology at Firenze (August, 1996). This work is supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No.02660163) from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports, and Culture of Japan.     

A preliminary analysis of phylogenetic relationships ofArundinaria and related genera based on nucleotide sequences of nrDNA (ITS region) and cpDNA (trnL-F intergenic spacer)

Phylogenetic relationships ofArundinaria and related genera (Pleioblastus, Pseudosasa, Oligostachyum, Bashania, Clavinodum, etc.) were assessed by analyzing the sequences of the nrDNA internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the cpDNAtrnL-F intergenic spacer (IGS). Comparison withtrnL-F IGS sequence, the ITS region provided the higher number of parsimony informative characters, and the interspecific variation of the ITS sequence was higher than that of thetrnL-FIGS sequence. The tree obtained by combining both sets of data showed that the species sampled inArundinaria and the related genera were monophyletic and divided into two clades. The relationships and positioning of all the taxa surveryed (includingA. oleosa, A. hsienchuensis, A. chino, A. amara, A. yixingensis, A. amabilis, A. fortunei, A. pygmaea, A. gramineus, A. fargesii, A. faberi, A. hupehense, Pseudosasa japonica cv. Tsutsumiana, P. japonica andBrachystachyum densiflorum) were also discussed. The results from the sequences were broadly consistent with morphological characters, appearing all these taxa sampled belong to the genus ofArundinaria. The topologies of the trees generated from individual data and the combined data were similar. Foundation item: This study was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 30170788) Biography: ZHUGE Qiang (1959-), male, professor in Laboratory of Forest Genetics and Gene Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, P.R. China. Responsible editor: Song Funan     

The nutrient translocation of seedlings with chemical analyses of the xylem saps ofCryptomeria japonica D. Don andPinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc.

The chemical compositions of xylem saps ofCryptomeria japonica D. Don andPinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. were studied. One-year-old seedlings of these species were transplanted into hydroponics in the middle of June. Some seedlings were retained in the nursery. Two nitrogen sources, ammonium and nitrate nitrogen, were applied separately. The samplings of xylem saps were made at the end of July. Saps were collected from both roots and tops of the seedlings using a pressure chamber. InC. japonica, the fact that the translocation form of nitrogen from the roots to shoots mainly was citrulline was confirmed. The result ofP. densiflora in this study showed that glutamine was the predominant compound of nitrogen translocation. Total nitrogen ofP. densiflora had a large value in the series of ammonium. Glutamine increased in the ammonium series of both species. Nitrate nitrogen was found in whole samples ofC. japonica, and was not found inP. densiflora. As the result of cations in the saps, monovalent cations were rich inP. densiflora, and divalent cation concentrations were greater inC. japonica. The idea that the great oxygen requirement ofP. densiflora produces the negative charge gives an explanation of the great retention of divalent cations in the roots. The idea that the mineral distribution indicates root activity related to its negative charge production also is considered a possibility.     

Effects of chronic acid fog exposure with soil acidification or nitrogen loading on nutrient status in Abies firma seedlings

To clarify the nutrient status in momi fir (Abies firma Sieb. et Zucc.) seedlings under complex stress conditions of acid fog with soil acidification or nitrogen loading, we exposed seedling shoots to simulated acid fog (pH 3) and simultaneously loaded the soil with acid or excess nitrogen for 17 months. Proton and nitrogen loading reduced K concentration in soil, but these treatments had little effect on the nutrient status of fine roots in momi fir seedlings. Acid fog exposure resulted in reduced concentrations of Mg, Al, and Fe in current-year needles and Mg, Al, Cu, Fe, and Zn in 1-year-old needles. The complex effects of acid fog exposure with proton or nitrogen loading on nutrient status were relatively slight. However, elements such as Al and Cu notably reflect the effects of proton loading. These results show that the nutrient status of trace elements, rather than major elements, in needles of momi fir seedlings is sensitive to exposure to acid fog or proton loading.     

Japanese beech (Fagus crenata) plantations established from seedlings of non-native genetic lineages

In order to examine whether seedlings of non-native genetic lineages had been planted, we compared chloroplast DNA haplotypes in plantations and neighboring natural populations of Fagus crenata in Nagano Prefecture, Japan. This region was chosen for study because there are abundant natural F. crenata populations with different haplotypes, and because the species is also frequently used for afforestation in the area. We sampled 159 trees from 30 populations of the species across most of its natural range in the region, and 136 trees from 20 plantations of the species, ranging in age from 3 to 17 years. Six single nucleotide polymorphisms and four insertions/deletions in two chloroplast DNA regions (trnL–trnF and trnK) were analyzed in each of the sampled individuals in order to determine their haplotypes. Four haplotypes (B, D, E and F) were detected in the natural populations, and these exhibited a clear geographical structure; in contrast, only two haplotypes (A and B) were found in the plantations. We found that 15 out of the 20 plantations—located in central and southern areas on the Pacific side of Honshu, where the natural populations contain haplotypes D, E, and F, and where the climate is characterized by dry, cold winters—had been established using seedlings with haplotypes A and B derived from the Sea of Japan side of the Japanese Islands, where it snows heavily. The risks associated with planting seedlings of inappropriate lineages are discussed.     

Only two weeks are required forTricholoma matsutake to differentiate ectomycorrhizal Hartig net structures in roots ofPinus densiflora seedlings cultivated on artificial substrate

There has been conflicting debate over many years regarding the trophic status ofTricholoma matsutake (Ito et Imai) Sing., and further investigations are necessary to better understandT. matsutake physiology, particularly carbon nutrition, during ectomycorrhizal symbiosis. For this purpose, we developed a technique to rapidly synthesizein vitro ectomycorrhizas betweenPinus densiflora Sieb. et Zucc. andT. matsutake on artificial substrate (vermiculite: perlite: peat: beech sawdust; 5:5:1:1.), without added sugar in the nutrient solution. Only 1 week was required before the first rudimentary Hartig net ‘palmetti’ could be observed in roots. Well-developed Hartig net structures appeared in taproots after 2 weeks and in lateral roots after 3 weeks. Such rapid root infection may be attributed to the quality of the substrate and the inoculum used. This research was supported by a grant from the Bio-oriented Technology Research Advancement Institution (BRAIN).     

Response of gas exchange rates in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Abies firma</Emphasis> seedlings to various additional stresses under chronic acid fog stress

In order to clarify the chronic influence of acid fog on the gas exchange rates of momi fir (Abies firma Sieb. et Zucc.) trees, we exposed them to simulated acid fog (pH 3) for 3 years. The composition of the acid fog was similar to that observed in a region where momi fir trees have been declining, and it contained organic acids. We then treated the firs with various additional stresses, such as drought, low temperature, fine root cutting, ozone exposure, soil acidification, nitrogen load, and rhizosphere aluminum stress. Under chronic exposure to acid fog, the momi fir seedlings exhibited a pattern of stomatal behavior whereby they excessively opened in summer and closed in winter. Furthermore, the stomata of these seedlings tended to open during drought stress, and their needles were visibly injured after ozone exposure. The net photosynthesis rates of the seedlings exposed to acid fog were regulated by their stomatal aperture, rather than directly by acid fog. These results suggest that acid fog exposure disturbs the control of stomatal function in the momi fir seedlings. In addition, we found that chronic acid fog exposure suppressed the decrease in net photosynthesis rate, due to its nitrogen load.     

Genetic diversity ofKandelia candel andBruguiera gymnorrhiza in the Southwest Islands, Japan

The genetic diversity of the mangrove tree speciesKandelia candel andBruguiera gymnorrhiza in the Southwest Islands of Japan was investigated. These islands are located at the periphery of the distribution area of the two species, and their populations are relatively small. Allozyme analyses of 17 loci inK. candel and 13 loci inB. gynmorrhiza revealed very little genetic variation in both species. At the species level, the proportion of polymorphic loci was 4.2%, the average effective number of alleles per locus was 1.02, and the average expected heterozygosity was 0.012 inK. candel. The corresponding figures forB. gymnorrhiza were 9.0%, 1.06 and 0.035, respectively. However, the coefficients of genetic differentiation among the populations were high (G _ST=0.165 forK. candel and 0.253 forB. gymnorrhiza). The genetic variation and habitat area ofK. candel on Amami Island is greater than on the islands Okinawa and Iriomote. The genetic variation and habitat area ofB. gymnorrhiza is greater on Iriomote Island than on the islands Okinawa and Amami. The level of genetic variation in both of the species might be related to their population sizes.     

Density effects on the conifer mortality in declining spruce-fir forest in northern Japan: Implication of bark beetle attack to, cause spruce decline

We examined mortality patterns of two conifer species in relation to tree abundance and species composition in a declining spruce-fir forest in Akan National park, Hokkaido, northern Japan. The data taken from eleven 58 m × 58 m square study plots showed that percentage basal area (BA) of dead trees of canopy trees during the last decade was 49% forPicea jezoensis (Sieb. et Zucc.) Carr and 30% forAbies sachalinensis (Fr. Schm.) Masters. InP. jezoensis, percentage basal area (BA) of dead trees was positively related to both BA of its own species and proportion of it to BA of all species, whereas it was not significantly related to both of these variables inA. sachalinensis. Multiple logistic regression with dbh as a confounding factor also indicated that, inP. jezoensis, the proportion of dead stems was positively affected by the stem density of conspecific trees, whereas it was negatively affected by the stem density of the other species in each study plot. However, inA. sachalinensis, the proportion of dead stems was significantly related to neither of these factors. The different mortality pattern between two conifer species suggests that the spruce bark beetle,Ips typographus (L.), which is a serious pest of spruce, may have caused theP. jezoensis decline. Instead of wind-throw or thinning that usually initiate this bark beetle attack, some unknown factors seemed to predispose the trees to insect attack. These unknown factors may also explain the high mortality ofA. sachalinensis in this forest. This research was supported by FFPRI Project, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery.     

Possibility of grouping of Cyclobalanopsis species (Fagaceae) grown in Japan based on an analysis of several regions of chloroplast DNA

Four regions of chloroplast DNA were sequenced as a prospective genetic marker to identify Japanese representatives of Cyclobalanopsis: Quercus acuta, Q. sessilifolia, Q. salicina, Q. myrsinaefolia, Q. glauca, and Q. gilva. We found that Q. gilva was distinguished from other species based on both the trnL-trnF and trnT-trnL intergenic spacers. The evidence shows good coincidence with the fact that Q. gilva has several peculiar morphological features distinguishable from those of other species. There was no difference in trnL intron and matK. Both trnT-trnL and trnL-trnF intergenic spacers are capable of being used as genetic markers to identify Q. gilva among Cyclobalanopsis species.Part of this paper was presented at the 48th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Shizuoka, April 3–5, 1998     

Analysis of genetic relationship in 12 species of Section Strobus with ISSR markers

Genetic relationship of 12 species of Section Strobus was analyzed with ISSR markers. 117 loci were detected with 12 ISSR primers. Percentage of polymorphic bands （PPB） varied from 5.93% to 19.92%. P. pumila had the highest levels of genetic differentiation and P. flexilis had lowest. Total genetic diversity （Hr） of 12 species in Section Strobus was 26.21%, of which intraspecific genetic diversity （Hs） was 7.66%, and interspecific genetic diversity （DST） was 18.55%, and the genetic variation in interspecies accounted for 70.78% of the total genetic diversity. According to the cluster results of genetic distance, the 12 species were classified into two groups. The first group included P. griffithii, P.armandi, P. fenzeliana, P. kwangtungensis, P. strobus, P. monticola and P. wangii. The second group included P. albicaulis, P pumila, P. flexilis, P. sibirica and P koraiensis.     

Litterfall,litter decomposition and the use of mulch of four indigenous tree species in the Atlantic lowlands of Costa Rica

Litterfall, forest-floor litter biomass and nutrients, short-term litter decomposition and the effects of leaf mulches on initial growth of maize were studied for four indigenous tree species with agroforestry potential:Stryphnodendron microstachyum Poepp. et Endl.(S. excelsum), Vochysia ferruginea Mart,Vochysia guatemalensis Donn. Sm. (V. hondurensis) andHyeronima alchorneoides (O), growing in a young experimental plantation in the Atlantic humid lowlands of Costa Rica. Total annual leaf litterfall was higher inV. ferruginea plots, followed byS. microstachyum, V. guatemalensis andH. alchorneoides; all with values comparable to those reported for other tree species grown in agroforestry combinations in humid tropical regions. Forest-floor litter accumulation was highest underV. ferruginea andV. guatemalensis. Both litterfall and forest-floor litter material had similar patterns in nutrient concentrations: N was higher inS. microstachyum, Ca was higher inV. guatemalensis, K was higher inH. alchorneoides; Mg was higher inV. guatemalensis andH. alchorneoides; H. alchorneoides andV. guatemalensis had the highest P.V. ferruginea litter decomposed more slowly, whileS. microstachyum apparently decomposed faster than the other species. The twoVochysia species showed increases in N and P concentration in decomposing litter after seven weeks in the field,H. alchorneoides showed an increase in litter N and a decrease in litter P, andS. microstachyum showed a net decrease in both N and P over the same time period. The patterns found in the litter bag study were confirmed by results obtained in a tethered-leaves experiment.S. microstachyum andV. ferruginea litters lost more weight when mixed in a 11 proportion than either of them alone. Maize seedlings growing in plots mulched withS. microstachyum andH. alchorneoides leaves showed greatest initial growth, confirming patterns found in decomposition and nutrient release studies. The results show that these species could be used in agroforestry combinations with different advantages according to the specific objectives desired, whether these are soil protection, nutrient recycling, or enhancement of the growth of associated crops.     

章古台沙地3种不同针叶树种天然更新对比

通过对章古台沙地樟子松、赤松、油松等3种不同针叶树种天然更新对比试验,结果表明,3种针叶树1年生天然更新强度分别为3 594～5 133、20 300～50 000和8 300～13 900株.hm-2;赤松天然更新的强度好于油松,油松好于樟子松;樟子松天然更新1年生幼苗较难越冬,经覆盖后幼苗越冬成活率达66%;赤松、油松1年生幼苗相对较易越冬,越冬成活率分别为17.20%和20%,经覆盖后幼苗越冬成活率分别为54.94%和51.28%。因此,应采取人工促进措施进行樟子松、赤松、油松天然更新。     

红松引种中间试验研究

在呼伦贝尔市引种红松，其地理位置及诸多气象因子等与原产地有很大差异，因此将小兴安岭温带湿润地区的树种引种到寒带或温带半湿润的大兴安岭地区进行栽培，要经过科学的试验和采取相应的驯化措施，才能达到引种目的。本文通过在大兴安岭地区引种红松的中间试验，找到了一种适合当地栽植的方法，为今后寒带或温带半湿润地区的红松栽植提供了一条有效的途径。     

Effects of complex stress of chronic acid fog exposure with rhizosphere aluminum on nutrient status in Abies firma seedlings

We exposed momi fir (Abies firma Sieb. et Zucc.) seedlings to simulated acid fog of pH 3.0 for about 3 years (from July 1999). During the last year of acid fog exposure, half of the seedlings were subjected to rhizosphere Al stress (complex stress) and the nutrient status of seedlings was determined. Chronic acid fog exposure decreased Fe and Zn concentrations in current-year and 1-year needles, and Al in 1-year needles, but had little effect on major element concentrations. Aluminum treatment had a broad impact on nutrient status in fine roots and needles. In fine roots, increases in Al and Cu concentrations and decreases in B, Mn, and Zn concentrations were observed. In 1-year needles, Al treatment increased Al, B, and Mn concentrations and decreased Cu concentration. The complex effect of acid fog with aluminum on nutrient status was relatively slight. These results show that changes in nutrient status under chronic acid fog exposure and/or Al stress are induced before the decline of photosynthesis in momi fir seedlings, mainly due to Al stress.     

Efficient plant regeneration of Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) via somatic embryogenesis

This report describes the efficient plant regeneration of Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb et Zucc. via somatic embryogenesis. Embryogenic cultures were initiated from megagametophytes containing immature zygotic embryos. Embryogenic cultures were maintained and proliferated by 2–3-week interval subcultures in medium supplemented with 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid and 6-benzylaminopurine. High maturation frequencies of cotyledonary embryos were obtained on maturation medium containing maltose, polyethylene glycol, activated charcoal, and abscisic acid. Somatic embryos germinated readily after transfer to plant growth regulator-free medium. Growth of regenerated emblings has been monitored in a greenhouse.