Identification of risk factors for sub-optimal housing conditions in Australian piggeries: Part 4. Emission factors and study recommendations

The internal concentrations and emission rates of ammonia (NH3), total bacteria, respirable endotoxins, and inhalable and respirable particles were monitored in 160 piggery buildings in four states of Australia (Queensland, Victoria, Western Australia, and South Australia) between autumn 1997 and autumn 1999. Emissions were calculated for individual buildings as a product of internal concentration and ventilation rate, which were estimated by a carbon dioxide balance method. Relative humidity and temperature were also measured. The overall mean emission rates of NH3, total bacteria, respirable endotoxins, inhalable particles, and respirable particles per 500 kg live weight from Australian piggery buildings were 1442.5 mg h(-1), 82.2 x 10(6) cfu h(-1), 20.1 x 10(3) EU h(-1), 1306.7 mg h(-1), and 254.7 mg h(-1), respectively. Internal concentrations of key airborne pollutants have been reported in companion articles. Building characteristics and management systems used in the piggeries were documented at the time of sampling and used in the subsequent statistical modeling of variations in pollutant emission rates. The emissions model used all statistically significant factors identified during prior modeling conducted for individual pollutant concentrations and ventilation airflow. The identification of highly significant factors affecting emission rates and internal concentrations should aid the development of strategies for the industry to reduce emission rates from individual buildings, thus improving the environmental performance of piggery operations. In the second part of the article, specific recommendations are made based on the overall study results.     

Identification of risk factors for sub-optimal housing conditions in Australian piggeries: Part 1. Study justification and design

We undertook a literature search related to pig production facilities with two major aims: first, to review all the likely benefits that might be gained from air quality improvements; and second, to review previous research that had identified statistically significant factors affecting airborne pollutants and environmental parameters, so that these factors could be considered in a multifactorial analysis aimed at explaining variations in air pollutant concentrations. Ammonia, carbon dioxide, viable bacteria, endotoxins, and inhalable and respirable particles were identified as major airborne pollutants in the review. We found that high concentrations of airborne pollutants in livestock buildings could increase occupational health and safety risks, compromise the health, welfare, and production efficiency of animals, and affect the environment. Therefore, improving air quality could reduce environmental damage and improve animal and worker health. To achieve a reduction in pollutant concentrations, a better understanding of the factors influencing airborne pollutant concentrations in piggery buildings is required. Most of the work done previously has used simple correlation matrices to identify relationships between key factors and pollutant concentrations, without taking into consideration multifactorial effects simultaneously in a model. However, our review of this prior knowledge was the first important step toward developing a more inclusive statistical model. This review identified a number of candidate risk factors, which we then took into consideration during the development of multifactorial statistical models. We used a general linear model (GLM) to model measured internal concentrations, emissions, and environmental parameters in order to predict and potentially control the building environment.     

Airborne Endotoxins and Airborne Gram-Negative Bacteria in a Residential Neighborhood

Ambient outdoor concentrations of airborne endotoxins and airborne gram-negative bacteria were measured in a residential area. Further, the species composition of the airborne gram-negative bacterial flora was investigated. The results demonstrated that humans and other mammals are exposed to airborne endotoxins in the outdoor air, but at levels where a development of adverse health effects is unlikely. The total amount of inhalable endotoxins ranged from <3.0 EU/m³ to 27.8 EU/m³. Airborne gram-negative bacteria were detected only at low concentrations (maximum 7.9 cfu/m³). Most gram-negative bacterial isolates belonged to the family Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonadaceae. Furthermore, the results of this study suggest that soil and vegetation are potential sources of airborne endotoxins and airborne gram-negative bacteria in the outdoor air of this environment.     

Identification of risk factors for sub-optimal housing conditions in Australian piggeries: Part 3. Environmental parameters

Between autumn 1997 and autumn 1999, we measured ventilation rates (using a CO2 balance method), air temperatures, and relative humidity (using self-contained dataloggers with built-in sensors) in 160 pig housing facilities in Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, and Western Australia, in each case over a 60 h period. In some buildings, the internal air velocities above the animals were also recorded. While the monitoring instruments were being set up, a detailed questionnaire was used to collect data on major housing features and management factors. This information was statistically analyzed to quantify the effects of housing and management factors on the resulting environment conditions using a multifactorial analysis. The overall mean air temperature, relative humidity, internal air velocity, and ventilation rate were 20.3 degrees C, 58.9%, 0.12 m s(-1), and 663.9 m3 h(-1) 500 kg(-1) live weight, respectively, across all buildings. Internal building temperature and humidity were affected statistically by the type of insulation material used, the classification of buildings, and external climatic conditions. Ventilation rates were primarily affected by the type of ventilation system used, height (size) of ventilation openings, stocking density (kg m(-3)), and length, width, and height of buildings. These findings should aid the development of strategies for the industry to improve environmental control in piggery buildings.     

Dust levels and control methods in poultry houses

This article summarizes information from the papers and posters presented at the international symposium on "Dust Control in Animal Production Facilities", held in Aarhus (Denmark) on 30 May-2 June 1999. Dust concentrations in poultry houses vary from 0.02 to 81.33 mg/m3 for inhalable dust and from 0.01 to 6.5 mg/m3 for respirable dust. Houses with caged laying hens showed the lowest dust concentrations, i.e., less than 2 mg/m3, while the dust concentrations in the other housing systems, e.g., perchery and aviary systems, were often four to five times higher. Other factors affecting the dust concentrations are animal category, animal activity, bedding materials and season. The most important sources of dust seem to be the animals and their excrements. Further studies on the effects of housing systems on dust sources and their compounds are desired for development of a healthier working environment in poultry production facilities. Adjustment of the relative humidity (RH) of the air in a broiler house to 75% will have an effect on inhalable dust, but not on respirable dust. A slight immediate effect on the respirable dust was observed after fogging with pure water or water with rapeseed oil. In an aviary system, a 50 to 65% reduction of the inhalable dust concentration was found after spraying water with 10% of oil and pure water, respectively. To obtain a higher dust reducing efficiency, improvement of techniques for application of droplets onto dust sources will be desired.     

Airborne antibiotic concentrations in a swine feeding operation

During the past 50 years, it has become common practice in the U.S. to add antibiotics to livestock feed to reduce disease and promote growth. Use of antibiotics in this manner has become the source of increasing controversy because overuse of antibiotics is suspected of leading to resistance in bacteria that cause human diseases. The purpose of this study was to measure airborne antibiotic concentrations in a swine production facility that routinely included antibiotics in feed. Samples were collected in a hog facility that included rooms devoted to farrowing, nursery, and growing operations. Analytical methods were developed to measure concentrations of the antibiotics tylosin and lincomycin in air samples. Tylosin was mixed in the feed in some of the rooms in the facility. While lincomycin was not added during this study, it had been used in this facility in the past and therefore was included in the analytical testing. Inhalable (n = 34), respirable (n = 37), and high-volume (n = 16) dust samples were collected on PVC filters over a two-month period. Tylosin concentrations were above the limit of quantification (LOQ) in 93% of the samples, while lincomycin concentrations were above the LOQ in only 9% of the samples (LOQ = 0.04 ng/sample). The average tylosin concentrations were 3, 18, and 49 ng/m3 in the respirable, inhalable, and high-volume samples, respectively. No occupational or environmental worker exposure criteria currently exist for antibiotics in air. The results of this study may be used to estimate potential swine production worker exposures and to further study the association between these exposures and health effects.     

A description of the standardized measurement procedures and recommended threshold limit values for biological hazards in Germany

On the basis of EU directives 89/391/EEC (to encourage improvements in the safety and health of workers at work) and 2000/54/EC (on the protection of workers from risks related to exposure to biological agents at work), biological hazards at work have to be assessed and preventive measures have to be introduced in all member states of the EU. In Germany, national legislation (Biological Agents Ordinance - BioStoffV and Technical Rules on Biological Agents, TRBA) and recommendations of workers' compensation boards define standardized methods for the assessment of airborne mold, bacteria, and endotoxins. This article describes policies and practices in Germany for measurement of airborne bioaerosols and for interpretation of measurements relative to the standards. As an example, methods and results of measurements in agriculture are shown. The standardized measurement procedures proved suitable for use in livestock buildings. The results of the exploratory measurements in different livestock buildings confirmed the often high concentrations of airborne biological hazards in agriculture that are reported in the literature.     

Temporal variation of indoor air quality in an enclosed swine confinement building

Human health hazards can exist in swine confinement buildings due to poor indoor air quality (IAQ). During this study, airborne dust and ammonia concentrations were monitored within a working farrowing facility as indicators of IAQ. The purposes of this study were to assess the temporal variability of the airborne dust and ammonia levels over both a daily and seasonal basis, and to determine the accuracy of real-time sensors relative to actively sampled data. An ammonia sensor, aerosol photometer, indoor relative humidity sensor, and datalogger containing an indoor temperature sensor were mounted on a board 180 cm above the floor in the center of a room in the facility. Sensor readings were taken once every 4 minutes during animal occupancy (3-week intervals). Measurements of total and respirable dust concentrations by standard method, aerosol size distribution, and ammonia concentrations were taken once per week, in addition to temperature and relative humidity measurements using a thermometer and sling psychrometer, respectively. Samples were taken between September 1999 and August 2000. Diurnal variations in airborne dust revealed an inverse relationship with changes in indoor temperature and, by association, changes in airflow rate. Ammonia levels changed despite relatively stable internal temperatures. This change may be related to both changes in flow rates and in volatility rates. As expected, contaminant concentrations increased during the cold weather months, but these differences were not significantly different from other seasons. However, total dust concentrations were very low (geometric mean = 0.8 mg/m3) throughout the year. Likewise, ammonia concentrations averaged only 3.6 ppm in the well-maintained study site.     

Winter Time Concentrations and Size Distribution of Bioaerosols in Different Residential Settings in the UK

The total concentration and size distribution of bioaerosols in three different types of housing (single room in shared accommodation [type I], single bedroom flat in three-storey building [type II] and two- or three-bedroom detached houses [type III]) was assessed during the winter. This research was an extension of a previous study carried out in the summer. The measurement campaign was undertaken in winter 2008 and 30 houses were sampled. Samples were taken from kitchens, living rooms, corridors (only in housing type I) and outdoors with an Anderson 6 stage viable impactor. In housing type I, the total geometric mean concentration was highest in the corridor for both bacteria and fungi (3,171 and 1,281?CFU/m³, respectively). In type II residences, both culturable bacteria and fungi were greatest in the living rooms (3,487 and 833?CFU/m³, respectively). The living rooms in type III residences had largest number of culturable bacteria (1,361?CFU/m³) while fungi were highest in kitchens (280?CFU/m³). The concentrations of culturable bacteria and fungi were greater in mouldy houses than non-mouldy houses. A considerable variation was seen in the size distribution of culturable bacteria in type I residences compared to types II and III. For all housing types more than half of culturable bacterial and fungal aerosol were respirable (<4.7???m) and so have the potential to penetrate into lower respiratory system. Considerable variation in concentration and size distribution within different housing types in the same geographical region highlights the impact of differences in design, construction, use and management of residential built environment on bioaerosols levels and consequent varied risk of population exposure to airborne biological agents.     

半阶梯式笼养蛋种鸡舍冬季日间空气污染物排放特征

蛋鸡舍空气颗粒物、空气微生物和氨气等污染物的排放不但影响场区生物安全,更会造成环境污染问题。该文采用直线多点均匀采样新型系统,对北京地区某半阶梯式笼养蛋种鸡舍冬季空气颗粒物、微生物和氨气3种污染物的日间排放进行监测和分析,研究半阶梯式笼养蛋种鸡舍冬季日间空气污染物排放特征。结果表明,该蛋种鸡舍试验期间舍内温度保持在18.0~20.0℃;间歇性通风条件下,风机的开启时长和舍外温度具有正相关关系(P0.05,R2=0.883 7);在冬季8:00-18:00期间,空气颗粒物的排放质量浓度为0.5~0.8 mg/m~3,每只鸡排放量为1.0~1.5 mg/h;空气微生物的排放浓度为4.0~4.5 log10CFU/m~3,每只鸡排放量为4.3~4.8 log10 CFU/h;氨气排放浓度为7.6~14.3 mg/m~3,每只鸡排放量为8.1~13.7 mg/h。试验期间,舍外温度低于舍内温度,试验鸡舍通风量及波动范围小,空气颗粒物、空气微生物和氨气的排放浓度、排放量与舍外温度、通风量、舍内相对湿度之间均未发现相关关系(P0.05)。该研究结果可为中国蛋鸡舍空气污染物排放特征提供参考。     

Variability of Atmospheric Ammonia In High-Rise,Caged Layer Composting

High concentrations of atmospheric ammonia (NH₃) can impact poultry and human health. During composting inside high-rise, caged layer facilities, high concentrations of NH₃ are produced due to low carbon to nitrogen ratios of composting materials and the confined building environment. This study characterized the spatial and temporal variability of NH₃ during in-house composting as a preliminary step to identifying control measures. Boric acid solutions and gas sensors were used to measure NH₃ in 2 m × 7.5 m grid patterns for three high-rise laying hen structures during composting. Spatial variability was evident in all buildings, with areas of higher NH₃ concentration near the center of buildings away from ventilation fans. Ammonia concentrations in the composting area frequently exceeded human health standards for 8-hour and 10-minute exposure periods of 25 and 35 μL L^?1, respectively. Ammonia concentrations were lower in cage areas of high-rise structures due to the negative pressure ventilation system venting gas directly from the composting area to the outside of buildings. Over a 6-week composting cycle, NH₃ generally increased as compost accumulated in the structure. Over 1-day periods of time, NH₃ concentrations varied with fluctuations in outdoor air temperatures and fan operation. During turning of compost, atmospheric NH₃ reached a high of nearly 50 μL L^?1 for over 30 minutes. Monitoring NH₃ and altering the ventilation of poultry houses could reduce NH₃ concentrations below critical levels at peak times such as during turning. However, ventilation as a solution to high NH₃ levels may not be environmentally sustainable. Other alternatives such as chemical and process controls, structural changes, or biofiltration should be explored to prevent NH₃ volatilization or remove NH₃ from air vented during in-house composting.     

基于改进实例分割算法的智能猪只盘点系统设计

基于图像处理的动物资产计数方法,不仅可以减少人工投入,还可以缩短生物资产的计数周期,但该方法受光照条件影响严重,并且当动物间相互挤压、遮挡时,计数精度较差。针对这些问题,该研究提出了一种基于图像实例分割算法的生猪计数网络。针对光照和目标边缘模糊问题,利用拉普拉斯算子进行图像预处理。对Mask R-CNN网络的特征提取网络进行改进,在原始特征金字塔网络（Feature pyramid network, FPN）后面增加一条自底向上的增强路径,直接将低层边缘位置特征与高层特征相融合,提高对目标边缘轮廓的识别能力,对非极大值抑制过程和损失函数进行优化和改进,以提高分割精度。在河北丰宁、吉林金源和内蒙古正大3个试验猪场进行测试,验证本文网络的计数精度。采集设备在3个试验猪场共采集2 400张图像,经图像预处理去除模糊和光线差的图像,从剩余的图像中随机选取共1 250张图像作为原始数据集,其中丰宁猪场500张、金源猪场500张,正大猪场250张。将各猪场的原始数据集分别按2:2:1的比例分为3部分,包括训练集905张,验证集95张,测试集250张,对原始训练集和验证集进行数据增强,最终得到训练集图像1 500张,验证集图像150张,测试集图想250张。河北和吉林的试验猪场,每栏猪只数目为12～22头,各测试100张图像,完全准确清点的图像比例分别为98%和99%,满足实际应用要求。内蒙古试验猪场的单栏猪只密度大,每栏猪只数目平均80头,测试50张图像,完全准确清点的图像比例为86%。本文所提出的猪只盘点系统,通过修改网络增强图像中目标特征信息提取和优化边界框回归过程,减少由于光线差和遮挡导致的目标漏检情况,解决了基于图像分割算法的猪只盘点中光照、模糊以及遮挡等问题,能够满足单栏饲养密度为1.03～1.32头/m2的养殖场的猪只盘点需求。     

猪舍设备对沙门氏菌病感染影响的研究进展

沙门氏菌被认为是全球生产者和消费者所面临的最严重的病原菌威胁之一,而猪和猪肉产品中的沙门氏菌是引起人类沙门氏菌病的主要来源,因此如何从源头控制养猪业中沙门氏菌的污染是中国食品安全和出口贸易急需解决的问题之一。本文综述了猪舍设施与饲喂设备(包括地板类型、围栏之间的隔断、饲喂饮水设备)对沙门氏菌感染的影响,环境控制措施(包括防护设备、褥草、猪栏清扫和消毒)对沙门氏菌感染的影响和运输对沙门氏菌感染的影响,最后提出了控制猪沙门氏菌感染应注重的方面。     

圈栏面积、形状和隔栏方式对猪排泄行为的影响

猪在圈栏内的排泄行为是直接影响粪尿在舍内的收集方式和清洁生产的首要环节。在不同的舍饲环境和饲养方式下猪的排泄行为随之变化,该文就育成育肥猪在常见的圈栏饲养方式下,对两种圈栏面积(14.4m2和9.6m2)、两种圈栏形状(长宽比为1︰1和1.5︰1)和隔栏方式(开敞和封闭),进行了两个重复的对比试验,研究这三个因素对猪群排泄区地点和排泄区面积大小的影响。将每个圈栏划分为15个网格区域,利用摄像仪记录猪的排泄行为后,通过observer软件分析落在每个网格区域的排泄频次,将排泄区定义为80%以上的排泄行为发生所在区域之和。结果表明圈栏面积对排泄区地点和面积大小有显著影响(Mann-WhitneyUTest,P<0.001),圈栏形状和隔栏方式影响不显著。并随着猪龄的增长,排泄区地点向漏缝地板方向移动,排泄区面积明显加大(Fridman Test,P<0.05),污染更加严重。应在育肥和育成阶段分开,并设计合理的圈栏尺寸,以实现猪到漏缝地板上排泄。     

猪粪堆肥挥发性有机物的产生规律与影响因素

堆肥是畜禽粪便处理及资源化利用的有效途径,然而堆肥过程中极易产生挥发性有机物(VOCs,volatile organic compounds),引发恶臭问题,并对人体健康带来危害。该研究以猪粪和秸秆为原料,通过堆肥试验,研究了含水率、碳氮比和通风速率等工艺参数对猪粪堆肥过程中主要VOCs产生的影响。研究结果表明:堆肥过程中TVOCs的最高体积分数可达2 000×10~(-6)以上,主要在堆肥升温期产生。二甲二硫、二甲三硫是主要的致臭VOCs,其中,影响二甲二硫排放的主要因素为物料初始含水率,影响二甲三硫排放的主要因素为通风速率。极差及方差分析结果表明,堆肥过程中采用含水率65%,碳氮比30,通风速率0.1 m~3/(min·m~3)可以有效控制VOCs的排放。     

Airborne lead pollution in Metropolitan Taipei (Republic of China)

To examine the spatial variation of airborne lead in Taipei, a field study was conducted during the summer and fall of 1991. Samples were collected 2–4 times daily at several sites for the determination of airborne lead. Results indicate that the average of air lead concentration of Taipei city is 0.70±0.39 μg/m³ and eighty-eight percent of particles are smaller than 10 pm. From high to low polluted area, the fine particle concentrations are 0.83, 0.51, 0.29 μg/m³ The lead concentration of particulates < 10 μm on 2nd, 7th, and 14th floors of a building are 0.75, 0.60, 0.55 μg/m³, and appears to be little difference among vertical dispersions. The air lead concentrations (da < 10 μm) on roadside, side walk and covered walk way from the vehicle emission source of a main road are 0.83, 0.78, 0.87 μg/m³ the highest is on the covered walk way. For lead concentrations (da < 10 μm) on the main street, side street and alley of an area are 0.34, 0.37, 0.35 μg/m³ the result indicates lead concentrations on these pathways are not significantly different.     

密闭式猪舍多环境因子调控系统设计及调控策略

大多数猪舍环境调控是建立在传统控制方法基础上的单一环境变量控制系统,难以对具有多个变量的系统建立精确的数值模型。该文基于模糊控制理论,以温度偏差和温度偏差变化率作为输入量,以通风模式和加热模式为输出控制量建立温度控制器;以相对湿度偏差和氨气浓度偏差为输入量,以通风模式为输出控制量建立通风控制器;并对不同季节多环境因子进行模糊化及逻辑推理,生成不同季节的调控策略及规则,建立2个具有双输入变量的非线性控制系统,加入动态补偿控制,优化猪舍环境调控系统。该文以在美国普渡大学环境研究猪舍监测所得的数据对建立的方法进行了模拟验证。结果表明,舍内温度与设定值最大相对误差为5%,实现了舍内温度稳定控制;舍内相对湿度与设定值最大相对误差为6.3%,充分满足湿度控制要求;猪舍氨气浓度变化范围为2.0~3.7 mg/m~3,远远小于设定值9.1 mg/m~3。因此,该文提出的猪舍多环境因子模糊控制系统及策略,能够很好地满足猪舍环境控制要求,为解决寒冷冬季猪舍温度与通风调控提供可行的思路。     

Dust in pig buildings

It is well documented in the international scientific literature that airborne dust in pig houses can cause serious health problems for humans as well as for animals. Extensive research has been carried out in different countries during the last few decades to improve the scientific understanding of air quality issues related to intensive animal production. Research and review papers were presented at the international symposium on Dust Control in Animal Production Facilities, held in Denmark in 1999. Different techniques have been used in order to reduce dust burdens in pig confinement buildings, but up to date only the procedure of spraying oil or a mixture of oil and water has contributed to reducing the indoor dust concentrations significantly. This article summarizes the current level of understanding of dust issues in intensive animal production buildings, mainly on the basis of papers presented at the above-mentioned symposium.     

Vegetable oil sprinkling as a dust reduction method in swine confinement

The aim of this project was evaluate the effectiveness of an oil sprinkling system as a dust-reduction method for swine production facilities. This article presents the results of the second-year experiment of a multi-year study. The first-year experiment demonstrated that a 5% oil-water emulsion automatically applied at the rate of 3 and 5 g/pig/day achieved a 23% to 34% reduction in total dust. The modifications for the second year experiment included: (1) increasing oil application rate to 7 and 8 g/pig/day, (2) replacing sprinkler heads to achieve a smaller droplet size and a more direct spray pattern on pen-floor surfaces, and (3) more closely matching the treatment and control rooms by stage in the pig production cycle. Four swine finishing rooms were used for this study; two were treatment rooms (soybean oil at 7 g/pig/day, and canola oil 8 g/pig/day) and two were control rooms. The treatment rooms had a low-pressure oil-sprinkling system, which sprinkled 5% oil-to-water mixture 12 times per day, 12 s each time. Concentrations of several environmental contaminants were measured. The average total dust concentration in the control rooms was 1.39 mg/m3. The average total dust concentration in the treatment rooms was 0.65 mg/m3. The treatment reduced dust by an average of 52%, (p = 0.0001). There was no difference in the degree of dust control between soybean oil and canola oil. The respirable dust concentrations were very low in all rooms, and there were no significant differences between rooms in ammonia, carbon dioxide, temperature, or humidity.     

Human health effects of dust exposure in animal confinement buildings

Work in swine and poultry units is associated with exposure to significant levels of organic dust and endotoxins with the highest concentrations found in poultry houses, whereas values found in dairy and in cattle farming are much lower. Corresponding to this is an excess of work-related respiratory symptoms in swine farmers. A dose-response relationship exists between symptoms and number of working hours. Longitudinal studies have demonstrated an accelerated decline of lung function in swine farmers large enough to cause clinically significant disease in some farmers. Because of the large number of people needed in swine farming and the long working hours, swine farming has emerged as the major respiratory problem in farming. Experimental studies indicate that exposure has to be lowered substantially to avoid acute effects and longitudinal studies demonstrate that loss of lung function occurs in non-smoking swine farmers without respiratory symptoms and that accelerated decline in lung function occurs below endotoxin concentrations in dust (100 ng/m3) proposed as a safe threshold.