由降雨事件引起的坡面产流和土壤侵蚀的元胞自动机模拟

A novel quantitative cellular automata (CA) model that simulates and predicts hillslope runoff and soil erosion caused by rainfall events was developed by integrating the local interaction rules and the hillslope surface hydraulic processes. In this CA model, the hillslope surface was subdivided into a series of discrete spatial cells with the same geometric features. At each time step, water and sediment were transported between two adjacent spatial cells. The flow direction was determined by a combination of water surface slope and stochastic assignment. The amounts of interchanged water and sediment were computed using the Chezy-Manning formula and the empirical sediment transport equation. The water and sediment discharged from the open boundary cells were considered as the runoff and the sediment yields over the entire hillslope surface. Two hillslope soil erosion experiments under simulated rainfall events were carried out. Cumulative runoff and sediment yields were measured, respectively. Then, the CA model was applied to simulate the water and soil erosion for these two experiments. Analysis of simulation results indicated that the size of the spatial cell, hydraulic parameters, and the setting of time step and iteration times had a large impact on the model accuracy. The comparison of the simulated and measured data suggested that the CA model was an applicable alternate for simulating the hillslope water flow and soil erosion.     

Surface runoff and soil erosion on unpaved forest roads from rainfall simulation tests in northeastern Spain

The generation of surface runoff and transport of sediment were studied on unpaved forest roads in the Iberian Range (Spain). To this end, a mobile rainfall simulator was used so that information could be compared. Twenty-eight rainfall simulations were carried out on the cutslope (12), sidecast fill (6) and roadbed (10). Under low soil moisture conditions, cutslopes had runoff coefficients of 58%, and overland flow was generated in 3 min. On the sidecast fill and the roadbed, the runoff coefficients were 34% and 46%, respectively. The part of the road that showed the greatest erosion was the cutslope (161 g m⁻²), where mass wasting and freeze–thaw processes supply loose material to be transported by overland flow. The cutslope soil loss rates exceed those from the sidecast fill and the roadbed by 16 and 11 times, respectively. In these tests, the maximum sediment concentration was recorded in the first few minutes. The concentration reduces with time as a consequence of the exhaustion of loose surface material. Correlation coefficients and regression analysis showed that the gradient, plant cover density and stone cover of the cutslopes, fill areas and roadbeds had statistically significant effects on runoff and erosion. A comparison of these data with others obtained on different land-uses allowed us to conclude that some parts of forest roads have similar hydromorphological behaviour to abandoned fields in mountainous areas and to cereal fields.     

Soil management effects on runoff and soil loss from field rainfall simulation

Soil erosion from agricultural lands is a serious problem on the Chinese Loess Plateau. In total, 28 field rainfall simulations were carried on loamy soils under different management practices, namely conventional tillage (CT), no till with mulch (NTM), reduced tillage (RT), subsoiling with mulch (SSM), subsoiling without mulch (SS), and two crops per year (TC), to investigate (i) the effects of different soil management practices on runoff sediment and (ii) the temporal change of runoff discharge rate and sediment concentration under different initial soil moisture conditions (i.e. initially dry soil surface, and wet surface) and rainfall intensity (85 and 170 mm h^− 1) in the Chinese Loess Plateau. NTM was the best alternative in terms of soil erosion control. SSM reduced soil loss by more than 85% in 2002 compared to CT, and its effects on runoff reduction became more pronounced after 4 years consecutive implementation. SS also reduced considerably the runoff and soil loss, but not as pronounced as SSM. TC resulted in a significant runoff reduction (more than 92%) compared to CT in the initial ‘dry’ soil, but this effect was strongly reduced in the initial ‘wet’ soil. Temporal change of runoff discharge rate and sediment concentration showed a large variation between the different treatments. In conclusion, NTM is the most favorable tillage practices in terms of soil and water conservation in the Chinese Loess Plateau. SSM can be regarded as a promising measure to improve soil and water conservation considering its beneficial effect on winter wheat yield.     

The influence of vegetation species and plant properties on runoff and soil erosion: results from a rainfall simulation study in south east Spain

Abstract. To study the influence of different vegetation species and plant properties on the generation of surface runoff and soil erosion in south east Spain, a series of rainfall simulation experiments was conducted on small ( c . 1.5 m²) plots. These were carried out in October 1993 and May 1994 on two sites close to Murcia. Six vegetation types were studied, with some at different stages of maturity, giving a total of nine vegetation treatments and two bare soil treatments. Four replicates of each treatment were exposed to a rainstorm of 120 mm/h for 15 minutes. The results of the experiments show that there are few significant differences in the ability of the vegetation types studied to control runoff or soil erosion. Of the plant properties considered, only plant canopy cover showed a significant relationship with soil loss and runoff with the greatest reduction in soil loss taking place at canopy covers greater than 30%. The implications of this research are that future efforts should be directed at developing ecological successions and revegetation methods which promote a substantial and sustainable canopy cover.     

土壤侵蚀降雨物理学简论

土壤侵蚀降雨物理学是一门尚待建立的学科。从土壤侵蚀降雨物理学的概念出发,探讨土壤侵蚀降雨物理学的主要内容及其与相关学科的关系,在回顾土壤侵蚀降雨物理学的相关理论发展简史的基础上,认为土壤侵蚀降雨物理学是气象学、水土保持学的交叉学科,是值得发展的新学科。     

模拟降雨条件下聚丙烯酰胺应用对径流、侵蚀和土壤养分流失的影响

Soil erosion affects soil productivity and environmental quality.A laboratory research experiment under simulated heavy rainfall with tap water was conducted to investigate the effects of anionic polyacrylamide(PAM) application rates(0,0.5,1.0,and 2.0 g m-2) and molecular weights(12 and 18 Mg mol-1) on runoff,soil erosion,and soil nutrient loss at a slope of 5°.The results showed the two lower rates of PAM application decreased runoff while the highest rate increased runoff as compared with the control.Sediment concentration and soil mass loss increased significantly with the increasing PAM application rate.Compared with the control,PAM application decreased K+,NH4+,and NO3-concentrations in sediment and K+ and NH+4 concentrations in runoff,but significantly increased the mass losses of K+,NH4+,and NO-3 over soil surface except for the NH4+ at PAM application rate lower than 1.0 g m-2.PAM application decreased the proportion of K+ loss with runoff to its total mass loss over soil surface from 60.1% to 16.4%.However,it did not affect the NH4+ and NO3-losses with runoff,and more than 86% of them were lost with runoff.A higher PAM molecular weight resulted in less soil erosion and K+ mass loss but had little effect on runoff and NH+4 and NO3-losses.PAM application did not prevent soil erosion and the mass losses of K+ and NO3-under experimental conditions.     

人工降雨条件下施加粉煤灰对耕作土壤结构和水土流失的影响研究

利用人工模拟降雨试验,研究了0°～20°坡度下的耕作土壤施加0～10%的粉煤灰后,对土壤结构和入渗、产流、产沙的影响。研究结果表明：随农田耕作层中粉煤灰含量的增加,土壤入渗速率明显加快,含10%粉煤灰土壤的入渗速率,较对照(土壤不加粉煤灰)提高了55.34%;施加粉煤灰降低了土壤容重,增加了土壤孔隙度,含10%粉煤灰的土壤,在10°坡时的容重较对照减小了17.42%,而孔隙度提高了9.84%;坡面产流量和土壤流失量降低,含10%粉煤灰的土壤,在20°坡时的产流量仅为对照的26.87%。因此,施加10%的粉煤灰,可有效改善土壤结构和蓄水减沙,具有较高的实用价值。     

降雨-径流条件下土壤溶质迁移过程模拟

通过雨滴的打击加速土壤表面溶质迁移至地表径流过程。通过设计3种水文条件即控制排水状态（-5 cm）、土壤水分饱和状态和土壤渗流状态（5 cm）,采用人工模拟3种降雨强度（30、60和90 mm/h）,及同时外加模拟相对于降雨量的0、2、4和10倍径流量,研究土壤溶质迁移到地表径流过程中扩散过程的规律。试验结果表明降雨强度、或地表径流总量、或地表水位线的增加,均加速土壤溶质的扩散过程。渗流作用下,对流-扩散作用存在着一种交互作用,能加速分子扩散过程。土壤溶质迁移过程同降雨强度、地表径流量和地下水位高低有着重要关系。     

用于土壤侵蚀试验的降雨模拟器研究进展

述评悬线式、针头式、管网式、喷头式4种降雨模拟器的特性及其应用现状与前景。悬线式和针头式降雨模拟器具有降雨强度下限低、均匀性好等优点,但在模拟降雨时,控制面积小,雨滴粒径偏大而且单一,所以应用渐少。管网式与喷头式降雨模拟器所产生的雨滴粒径与能量分布与天然降雨更为接近,广泛应用于土壤侵蚀试验研究中。目前,智能化、自动化、大型化的降雨模拟大厅不断涌现,同时根据雨滴发生基本原理搭建的手控、简易的降雨模拟器仍有其强大的生命力。     

Estimation of runoff critical shear stress for soil erosion from soil shear strength

Critical shear stress is an important soil parameter governing detachment by runoff which appears in numerous erosion models. Soil shear strength has been often presented as the best soil property to predict critical shear stress. However, only a few studies have documented the relationship between soil shear strength and critical shear stress, and the results obtained have sometimes seemed contradictory. This is why we have put together all available data about the relationship between critical shear stress and soil shear strength in order to analyse and discuss its significance and its generality. Results showed that contradictions between different studies mainly arise because total shear stress is a poor predictor of detachment on rough soils. When grain shear stress is used rather than total shear stress, a significant relationship between saturated soil shear strength and critical shear stress does exist. Soil shear strength may thus be used to predict critical grain shear stress. However, it is recalled that in general only total shear stress is predicted by erosion models, which makes detachment predictions difficult on rough natural soils.     

Conservation management decreases surface runoff and soil erosion

Conservation management practices – including agroforestry, cover cropping, no-till, reduced tillage, and residue return – have been applied for decades to control surface runoff and soil erosion, yet results have not been integrated and evaluated across cropping systems. In this study we collected data comparing agricultural production with and without conservation management strategies. We used a bootstrap resampling analysis to explore interactions between practice type, soil texture, surface runoff, and soil erosion. We then used a correlation analysis to relate changes in surface runoff and soil erosion to 13 other soil health and agronomic indicators, including soil organic carbon, soil aggregation, infiltration, porosity, subsurface leaching, and cash crop yield. Across all conservation management practices, surface runoff and erosion had respective mean decreases of 67% and 80% compared with controls. Use of cover cropping provided the largest decreases in erosion and surface runoff, thus emphasizing the importance of maintaining continuous vegetative cover on soils. Coarse- and medium-textured soils had greater decreases in both erosion and runoff than fine-textured soils. Changes in surface runoff and soil erosion under conservation management were highly correlated with soil organic carbon, aggregation, porosity, infiltration, leaching, and yield, showing that conservation practices help drive important interactions between these different facets of soil health. This study offers the first large-scale comparison of how different conservation agriculture practices reduce surface runoff and soil erosion, and at the same time provides new insight into how these interactions influence the improvement or loss of soil health.     

Effects of sheet and rill erosion on soil aggregates and organic carbon losses for a Mollisol hillslope under rainfall simulation

Purpose

Characterizations of soil aggregates and soil organic carbon (SOC) losses affected by different water erosion patterns at the hillslope scale are poorly understood. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify how sheet and rill erosion affect soil aggregates and soil organic carbon losses for a Mollisol hillslope in Northeast China under indoor simulated rainfall.

Materials and methods

The soil used in this study was a Mollisol (USDA Taxonomy), collected from a maize field (0–20 cm depth) in Northeast China. A soil pan with dimensions 8 m long, 1.5 m wide and 0.6 m deep was subjected to rainfall intensities of 50 and 100 mm h^?1. The experimental treatments included sheet erosion dominated (SED) and rill erosion dominated (RED) treatments. Runoff with sediment samples was collected during each experimental run, and then the samples were separated into six aggregate fractions (0–0.25, 0.25–0.5, 0.5–1, 1–2, 2–5, >?5 mm) to determine the soil aggregate and SOC losses.

Results and discussion

At rainfall intensities of 50 and 100 mm h^?1, soil losses from the RED treatment were 1.4 and 3.5 times higher than those from the SED treatment, and SOC losses were 1.7 and 3.8 times greater than those from the SED treatment, respectively. However, the SOC enrichment ratio in sediment from the SED treatment was 1.15 on average and higher than that from the RED treatment. Furthermore, the loss of <?0.25 mm aggregates occupied 41.1 to 73.1% of the total sediment aggregates for the SED treatment, whereas the loss of >?0.25 mm aggregates occupied 53.2 to 67.3% of the total sediment aggregates for the RED treatment. For the organic carbon loss among the six aggregate fractions, the loss of 0–0.25 mm aggregate organic carbon dominated for both treatments. When rainfall intensity increased from 50 to 100 mm h^?1, aggregate organic carbon loss increased from 1.04 to 5.87 times for six aggregate fractions under the SED treatment, whereas the loss increased from 3.82 to 27.84 times for six aggregate fractions under the RED treatment.

Conclusions

This study highlights the effects of sheet and rill erosion on soil and carbon losses at the hillslope scale, and further study should quantify the effects of erosion patterns on SOC loss at a larger scale to accurately estimate agricultural ecosystem carbon flux.

     

Factors affecting runoff and erosion under simulated rainfall in Mediterranean vineyards

Data on surface runoff and soil loss on gentle slopes with vineyards are analysed. Using a rainfall simulator, 22 rainstorms with varied intensities from 30 to 117.5 mm h⁻¹ and return periods from 2 to 127 years were reproduced. The experimental plots were installed on vineyards planted in straight rows and oriented with the slope direction having a mean gradient of 3.8°. The texture of soils was loamy, with a very heterogeneous surface gravel cover. Values of measured surface runoff varied from 7.2 mm h⁻¹ for low rainfall intensities (30 mm h⁻¹) and short return periods (2 years) to 41.9 mm h⁻¹ with simulation experiments of higher rainfall intensity (104 mm h⁻¹) and long return periods (68 years). Runoff increased linearly with rainfall intensity resulting in soil losses that also increased with rainfall intensity (18.2 g m⁻² h⁻¹ with storms of 30 mm h⁻¹, and 93.2 g m⁻² h⁻¹ with storms of 104 mm h⁻¹); however, r² explains only 36% of the variance. It was necessary to add other factors to improve the coefficient of determination (0.74; p = 0.001) and the predictive function of the equation. These variables were rainfall intensity, kinetic energy of the storm, runoff, soil resistance to drop detachment, surface gravel cover, and gradient. The equation obtained was validated with the USLE-M. In comparison with similar experiments in other regions, the results obtained for soil loss were very moderate, especially those caused by rainstorms of intermediate and low intensity.     

Effects of intra-storm variations in rainfall intensity on interrill runoff and erosion

Five simulated rainstorms, each with a different rainfall intensity pattern but all delivering the same total kinetic energy to the soil surface, were applied to three different soils in a laboratory flume. The storm patterns were: constant rainfall intensity, increasing intensity, decreasing intensity, increasing then decreasing intensity and decreasing then increasing intensity. The three soils were: a clay loam, a sandy loam and a sandy soil. No differences in total runoff were observed that were consistent across the three soil types. However, consistent differences were observed in the amount and size distribution of the eroded sediment. In particular, the constant-intensity storm yielded an average soil loss of 75% of the varying-intensity storms, and the eroded sediment from the constant-intensity storms had a lower clay content than that from the varying-intensity storms. In contrast to the differences in amount and size distribution of eroded sediment, splashed sediment exhibited much smaller differences. Interrill erosion rates are widely assumed to vary with rainfall intensity to the power 2, but this relationship has been obtained from experiments over a range of rainfall intensities, but in which rainfall intensity has been constant in each experiment. The experiments reported here, undertaken using variable rainfall intensity within each experiment, indicates an exponent of 2.55. The experiments demonstrate that the assumption that a given rainfall intensity falling on a given soil for a given amount of time will result in a given amount of runoff and erosion is unsound. They point to the need for a greater understanding of the processes of interrill sediment detachment and transport in order to model successfully erosion under temporally varying rainfall.     

Uncertainty of factors determining runoff and erosion processes as quantified by rainfall simulations

Rainfall simulations at different scales have been used for understanding the influence of different factors on runoff generation and erosion. They are an accepted method for calibrating and validating physically based rainfall and erosion models. Nevertheless, it is proven that not only the patterns of rainfall are highly variable over space and time. Soil parameters responsible for runoff generation and erosion – e.g. infiltration capacity, soil moisture, aggregate stability – are highly variable, too. The results of more than 100 plot scale rainfall simulations on abandoned fields in different areas of Spain are analysed for identifying and quantifying factors affecting runoff and erosion processes. The variability of superficial runoff and suspended sediment yield is very high within most of the test areas, reaching values up to a runoff coefficient of 1 and yielding 130 g per experiment. Only within the semi-arid areas we can find a significant and high correlation between vegetation cover and sediment yield (and sediment concentration), whereas most of the other investigated surface parameters show no influence on runoff and erosion.     

Biochar effects on soil water infiltration and erosion under seal formation conditions: rainfall simulation experiment

Purpose

Soil amendment with biochar can result in decreased bulk density and soil penetration resistance, and increased water-holding capacity. We hypothesized that adding biochar could moderate the reductions in infiltration rates (IR) that occur during high-intensity rainstorms in seal-prone soils, and hence result in reduced runoff and erosion rates. The objectives were to (i) evaluate biochar potential to improve infiltration and control soil erosion, and (ii) investigate the mechanisms by which biochar influences infiltration rate and soil loss.

Materials and methods

Rainfall simulation experiments were conducted on two physicochemically contrasting, agriculturally significant, erosion-prone soils of Israel that are candidates for biochar amendment: (i) non-calcareous loamy sand, and (ii) calcareous loam. Biochar produced from mixed wood sievings from wood chip production at a highest treatment temperature of 620 °C was used as the amendment at concentrations from 0 to 2 wt%.

Results and discussion

In the non-calcareous loamy sand, 2 % biochar was found to significantly increase final IR (FIR) by 1.7 times, and significantly reduce soil loss by 3.6 times, compared with the 0 % biochar control. These effects persisted throughout a second rainfall simulation, and were attributed to an increase in soil solution Ca and decrease in Na, and a subsequently decreased sodium adsorption ratio (SAR). In the calcareous loam, biochar addition had no significant effect on FIR but did reduce soil loss by 1.3 times. There were no biochar-related chemical changes in the soil solution of the calcareous loam, which corresponds to the lack of biochar impact on FIR. Surface roughness of the calcareous loam increased as a result of accumulation of coarse biochar particles, which is consistent with decreased soil loss.

Conclusions

These results confirm that biochar addition may be a tool for soil conservation in arid and semi-arid zone soils.

     

Residue impacts on runoff and soil erosion for different corn plant populations

The year to year carry-over effects of biomass additions under different plant populations on runoff and erosion are unclear. The objective of this study was to quantify the impact of different plant populations on residue cover to elucidate the effects of residue cover on runoff and erosion. The residue management system involved shredding of corn (maize) biomass after harvest, incorporating the residue in the spring, and leaving the land fallow until it was no-till planted the following spring. Runoff and soil losses were measured on 18 runoff plots with plots arranged in two areas with each having three randomized treatments (0%, 50%, and 100% plant population) with three replications. The two areas were managed as a fallow/no-till corn rotation in two cycles of alternating years. Surface residue cover was highly dynamic with significant changes between cycles and seasons in response to the management practices. The annual soil losses were reduced by 47% and 54% for the 50% and 100% plant populations, respectively compared to the control. However, the annual soil loss even for the 100% plant population was still nearly seven times the tolerable soil loss limit of 7 ton ha⁻¹. The normal erosion protection afforded by no-till practices was lost by the incorporation of residue the previous year.     

A probabilistic approach for predicting rainfall soil erosion losses in semiarid areas

The implementation of soil and water conservation structures in semiarid areas, usually poses a difficult design problem. This is, in large part, due to the high variability of rainfall and the huge potential impact of extreme hydrologic events on structures and on the landscape in general. Magnitudes of runoff and soil loss or sedimentation rates in those environments are better not assessed by conventional modelling techniques, which tend to average out event magnitude and recurrence variability in time and space. A probability-based approach is proposed here to analyse and predict rainfall erosion losses. The maximum annual storm and its associated erosivity is used as a core element in the assessment of annual interrill and rill erosion rates. Frequency and cumulative soil loss distributions are obtained by combining verified annual and maximum daily rainfall frequency distributions with a proposed erosion algorithm. This stochastic representation of erosion permits to evaluate soil losses for the maximum annual storm, as well as annual erosion rates as a function of recurrence interval. The proposed method was verified with a short series of measured soil loss data in Cape Verde. The physical basis underlying the prediction algorithm and method in general, could be sustained by experimental data and field survey evidence. The method seems applicable to arid and semiarid ecosystems with a high seasonal concentration of precipitation and with rainfall limited to only a few major storm events.