超高压增大食品物料的导热系数

食品物料在超高压下的导热系数是研究超高压加工过程中传热与温度变化的必要参数,但有关超高压下食品物料的导热系数数据和测量方法还十分缺乏。该文基于线热源法设计了适用于超高压力环境下食品物料导热系数的测量探针和聚甲醛样品容器,利用1.5%琼脂凝胶对热探针在25℃不同压力下(0.1~400 MPa)进行标定试验,结果表明测量值与纯水导热系数的参考值非常接近且呈良好的线性相关关系(R2=0.9997),据此得到探针的标定系数为0.9944。在25℃测量了蛋清、蛋黄、火腿肠和奶油在0.1~400 MPa压力下的导热系数值。结果发现:在25℃条件下,超高压下食品物料的导热系数较常压下均有一定程度的增大(最大达到28%),且有随压力增大而增大的趋势;一定压力条件下,食品物料的导热系数随着含水量的增大而增大。建立了25℃条件食品物料在一定压力范围内(0.1~400 MPa)导热系数预测的经验公式,对研究的几种食品物料拟合得到的方程回归系数在0.91以上。     

苹果汁导热系数影响因素的实验研究

由于目前对果汁热物性参数基础研究比较缺乏,本文采用微热探针法测试系统对3～50℃温度范围内不同浓度苹果汁的导热系数进行了系统测试。结果表明,苹果汁的温度和浓度对其导热系数具有显著影响。在相同温度条件下,苹果汁的导热系数与其浓度呈高度线性负相关;相同浓度的苹果汁导热系数与其温度呈高度线性正相关,并得出了苹果汁导热系数关于浓度和温度的二元数学模型,为果汁加工业的相关研究提供了科学依据。     

探针有限特性对热脉冲技术测定土壤热特性的影响

在利用热脉冲方法测定热特性时,通常对探针形状做理想化处理,即假设探针为线性热源,热导率无限大而热容量为零。在实际应用中,探针本身的有限特性(有限半径以及有限热容量)会导致热特性测定误差。为了研究探针有限特性对热脉冲技术测定土壤热特性的影响,该研究采用改进的热脉冲探针(直径2 mm、长度40 mm、间距8 mm)测定土壤热特性,并分别使用PILS(pulsed infinite line source,无限长线性脉冲热源)和ICPC(identical cylindrical perfect conductors,近似圆柱形完美导体)2种理论估计土壤热特性,比较分析了探针有限特性对热脉冲技术测定热特性结果的影响。结果表明:1)与PILS理论相比,利用ICPC理论拟合得到的温度升高曲线,可以有效减少探针有限半径和热容量对土壤热特性测定结果的影响。与ICPC理论相比,在0.03~0.25 m3/m3的含水率范围内,用PILS理论得到的砂土热扩散率和热导率分别偏低11.8%和5.2%;与模拟热容量相比,PILS和ICPC理论分别将热容量高估16.1%和7.9%;2)探针有限特性对土壤热特性的影响与含水率有关:在干土上最大;随着土壤含水率的增加,其影响逐渐降低。该研究对提高热脉冲技术测定土壤热特性的准确性具有指导意义。     

果蔬导热系数的测试

果蔬类产品大多具有含水率高的特点,用常规的方法难以测定其导热系数。采用探针法测量了几种果蔬的导热系数,证明了该方法测量时间短,测量过程中试样温升小,测试结果可以准确反映被测物料的实际状态。文中介绍了探针法测量果蔬导热系数的基本原理、测试系统和数据处理方法。     

土壤导热率测定及其计算模型的对比分析

土壤导热率是重要的热参数之一,为了获得预测导热率的准确方法,该文对比分析了确定土壤导热率的热脉冲直接测定法和模型间接推求法。根据热脉冲原理在相同体积质量下,测定了不同质地和含水率土壤的导热率值。结果表明在相同含水率条件下,砂粒含量越高,土壤的导热率越大,土壤导热能力越强。利用Horton经验公式对实测值进行了拟合,结果显示Horton经验模型基本可以反映土壤导热率变化特征,并得到了Horton公式经验系数。利用实测值与Campbell模型计算值进行了比较,结果显示Campbell模型计算结果偏差较大,并对其进行了修正。并且用实测值与Johansen模型及其2种改进模型(Coté-Konrad模型和Lu-Ren模型)的计算值进行了对比分析,结果表明Johansen模型计算结果与实测值偏差较大,2种改进型模型的计算结果与实测值更接近。该研究表明土壤导热率可以利用土壤质地、含水率、孔隙度和体积质量进行计算,3种理论模型的计算值与实测值的相关系数均值分别为:0.643、0.937、0.943,推荐使用Coté-Konrad模型和Lu-Ren模型计算土壤导热率,Lu-Ren模型比Coté-Konrad模型的适用范围更广。     

温室土壤含水率与导热率空间分布及相关性

为探究土壤含水率与导热率的空间分布特征和相关性,选取温室中8 m×8 m供试地块,以1 m×1 m网格间距布设采样点,测定0～40 cm土壤含水率,并同步获取0～20 cm土层的导热率。基于经典统计学、地统计学、回归分析和谱分析等理论,对土壤含水率与导热率的空间分布特征和相关性进行研究。结果表明,土壤含水率在0～40 cm土层呈现先升高后降低的趋势,且在20～30 cm土层均值最大。10～20 cm土层土壤导热率比0～10 cm土层高15.60%。各深度土层中土壤含水率及导热率存在着较强的空间相关性（块金系数<0.192）,而试验中随机因素引起的空间变异程度较低（块金值<0.540）,最小变程大于采样间距,说明网格布设满足空间分析要求。在供水均匀条件下,不同深度土层的蒸发强度与邻域地块的土壤水分含量亦会影响含水率空间分布。在含水率范围为17%～28%时,0～20 cm土层土壤含水率与导热率呈线性正相关（R2=0.837）,谱分析结果显示导热率在含水率序列上呈现长程负相关。     

气流改善泡沫树莓果浆微波干燥均匀性提高能量利用率

为满足浆果低能耗、高品质的生产过程的需要,采用理论分析、数值模拟与台架试验相结合的方法,研究气流与微波协同作用对泡沫果浆干燥均匀性和微波能利用率的影响规律。结果表明:在气流与微波协同干燥中由于物料的介电特性指标及表观导热、气体渗流、气相导热、液相导热等系数变化,从而影响泡沫果浆料层中传热、传质过程。泡沫果浆传热及传质系数变化,影响泡沫果浆内部热传导及水分传递,温度及含水率直接影响泡沫果浆介电特性指标,进而影响物料微波能吸收。气流在料层边界热对流量及料层内的热传导量是表征气流、微波协同作用的主要指标,当料层边界热对流量与内部热传导量比值低于27.79时,气流与微波协同作用产生正向效应,提高微波能利用率;当料层边界热对流量与内部热传导量比值高于27.79时,此协同作用产生负向效应,降低微波能利用率;气流携带泡沫果浆中蒸发出的水蒸气,降低物料表层湿空气压力,导致泡沫果浆气泡的产生和破裂,强化传热传质过程,进而提高料层内温度及含水率分布均匀性。当气流速度小于1.5m/s时,气流速度与干燥均匀性呈显著正相关;当气流速度大于1.5m/s时,气流速度对物料干燥均匀性影响不显著;在气流速度为1.5m/s时,干燥时间短,微波能利用率最高,相比无通风时提高了17.57%,微波能吸收量、温度及含水率分布的均匀度分别提高了20%、19%及27%,符合低能耗、高品质的浆果干燥生产要求,研究结果为浆果微波泡沫干燥工艺优化提供依据。     

土壤热参数确定方法比较与修正

土壤热参数是分析研究土壤热传递的基本参数,寻求确定热参数简单方法是研究的热点问题.该文利用自行研制的土壤热特性试验系统,测定了4种质地土壤热特性,计算了不同质地土壤在不同含水率、不同容重情况下的热扩散率,进一步推导出不同情况下的导热率,并与Campbell经验公式计算的导热率进行比较,发现计算值与实测值相差较大,并对Campbell经验公式进行修正,同时对修正经验公式进行分析、检验,并讨论此经验公式的适用范围.结果显示在体积含水率小于20%的时候,修正经验公式可以用于计算导热率.     

质地对土壤热性质的影响研究

土壤热性质是水热迁移研究中的重要参数之一。根据非稳态条件下热流方程的差分解和实测土壤温度资料计算了不同质地土壤的热扩散率，并得出了质地影响下的土壤导热率关系式。研究结果表明，对特定土壤而言，土壤导热率与含水率之间可建立幂函数关系；砂粒、粉粒和粘粒含量对土壤热性质有不同程度的影响；不同质地土壤的热性质与土壤水吸力之间存在良好的定量关系；此外，含盐土壤的导热率可表示为浓度的幂函数关系。     

基于伴随方程法的鱼饲料热特性参数反演

比热、导热率和导温系数是鱼饲料重要的热特性参数,其在干燥及冷却工艺参数的调整、饲料湿热传递仿真模拟研究中均有应用。为了探究鱼饲料的热特性,同时探究反演算法求解饲料热特性的适应性,该研究以草鱼（成鱼）膨化饲料为研究对象,建立基于伴随方程法的反演模型;利用自行搭建的热传导试验装置并配合红外热像仪（测温精度±0.1 ℃）,以获得饲料试样的温度分布规律;利用此数据可反演计算含水率为11%～17%的饲料在20～80 ℃温度范围内的比热、导热率和导温系数。使用差式扫描量热仪（Differential Scanning Calorimetry,DSC）和热特性分析仪分别测量饲料的比热和导热率,并计算导温系数,将此作为实测值;将反演算法所得值作为计算值。对二者进行线性拟合,决定系数R2均大于等于0.980,说明比热和导热率的计算值与实测值的误差较小,结果表明基于反演算法的鱼膨化饲料热特性参数测定方法是可行的。同时,结果表明,草鱼膨化饲料在11%～17%含水率和20～80 ℃温度范围内的比热为1.710～1.840 kJ/(kg∙℃)。饲料比热随温度的增大而显著增大（P<0.05）。当含水率由11%增大至17%时,饲料的比热显著增加（P<0.05）,且呈线性规律。饲料的导热率为0.086～0.148 W/(m∙K),当温度由20 ℃增大至80 ℃时,草鱼膨化饲料导热率显著增大（P<0.05）;含水率对其影响同样显著（P<0.05）。饲料的导温系数为5.701～10.003 m2/s,且受温度和含水率的影响均显著（P<0.05）。研究可为鱼饲料热特性参数的测定提供一种新思路。     

Annual variation of natural 15N abundance in tea leaves and its practicality as an organic tea indicator

To obtain basic knowledge about the relationship between the application of organic fertilizers and the δ15N values of leaves of organically grown tea plants, annual variations in the δ15N values of the tea leaves were investigated. Although variations did not immediately arise after the application of organic fertilizers, differences in the δ15N values between organic and conventional cultivations appeared basically after three years from the beginning of the organic cultivation except when an organic fertilizer with a low δ15N value was applied, and the variation depended on the δ15N values of the fertilizers. In addition, the effectiveness of the δ15N values as a practical indicator of organic teas was examined. The tea leaves collected from organic farms did not always have higher δ15N values than the commercially available nonorganic teas. This result demonstrates that it is not easy to discriminate organic teas from nonorganic teas simply by their δ15N values.     

Radical scavenging conserves from unused fresh green tea leaves

Green teas were made by inactivating the enzymes present in fresh leaves of coarse/pruned (unused) and normal (used for tea) grades using different sources of thermal energies. Green teas were extracted in a Soxhlet using different solvents. The obtained miscella was subjected to concentration to give the extract. The extract was subjected to solvent-solvent extraction. Solvent extract was concentrated to obtain conserve. The yields of conserves are 17 +/- 0.8 and 15 +/- 0.8% from green teas of normal and coarse tea leaves, respectively. The radical scavenging activity of these extracts was evaluated using a DPPH in vitro model system. The total polyphenol content was also determined and found to be higher in conserves from normal tea leaves. However, radical scavenging activity of conserves from coarse and normal green tea leaves was found to be >90% at 15 ppm concentration. The HPLC profiles of these conserves were used to quantify the total catechin content with the help of calibration curves prepared using authentic samples at known concentrations. The total catechin content is found to be in the range of 55-85%. Results indicated that the extracts from coarse leaves also possess potential biological activity and could be used as nutraceuticals as well as for preservation purposes in food formulations.     

Profiles of purine and pyrimidine nucleotides in fresh and manufactured tea leaves

Profiles of nucleotide levels in two varieties of Japanese green teas (cv. Yabukita and Saemidori), a Chinese green tea (Longjing), and two Japanese black teas (cv. Benifuuki and Benihikari) were determined and compared with that of fresh tea leaves. The concentration of 5'-nucleotides in green tea was much higher than in black tea. Nucleoside diphosphates were present in larger amounts than nucleoside triphosphates in manufactured green and black teas, whereas the triphosphates predominated in fresh tea leaves. Low levels of 3'-nucleotides were found in green and black teas. Inosine 5'-monophosphate, which is utilized as a seasoning component, was found in all manufactured teas in concentrations ranging from 50 to 200 nmol/g of dry weight. The levels of both inosine 5'-monophosphate and guanosine 5'-monophosphate were high in Chinese Longjing green tea. The unique profiles of nucleotides in manufactured teas may be a consequence of the action of degradation enzymes, such as ribonuclease, apyrase, phosphatase, nucleotidase, and adenosine 5'-monophsphate deaminase during the commercial processing of the young leaves.     

Chain-breaking antioxidant activity and cyclic voltammetry characterization of polyphenols in a range of green,oolong, and black teas

A series of eight green, eight oolong, and 17 black teas have been analyzed for polyphenol content by absorbance at 272 nm and cyclic voltammetry response at an inert carbon electrode, a new method developed to provide a rapid measure of easily oxidizable polyphenols in beverages. The chain-breaking antioxidant activity of the teas has also been determined during the chain oxidation of methyl linoleate in a pH 7.4 micellar solution, for which realistic kinetic parameters have been derived. While higher mean values were obtained for green teas than for oolong and black teas, the differences were not large, and the spread of values within each type was considerable. The absorbance at 272 nm correlated well with the cyclic voltammetry response only for green teas and black teas taken on their own. The cyclic voltammetry measure and the antioxidant activity correlated well only for the green teas, where the polyphenol content is dominated by epigallocatechin gallate.     

Effect of growing and drying conditions on the phenolic composition of mate teas (Ilex paraguariensis)

Mate tea ( Ilex paraguariensis) has been used for centuries and is widely consumed in Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. The aim of the present study was to determine how growing and drying conditions affect the phenolic concentration and antioxidant capacity of 15 Mate teas from forest or plantation cultivations, dried either with hot air or wood smoke. The total polyphenol concentration determined with Folin-Ciocalteu ranged from 100.3 +/- 5.5 to 179.7 +/- 3.6 mg equiv chlorogenic acid/g dry leaves. The antioxidant capacity according to the oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay ranged from 1.5 +/- 0.3 to 4.1 +/- 0.1 mmol Trolox equiv/g dry leaves. Ten phenolic compounds were identified and correlated with antioxidant capacity ( R (2) = 0.80). Principle component analysis and multivariate linear regression were conducted to assess the effect of growing and drying conditions. Sun-exposed (plantation grown) Mate teas exhibited higher levels of all polyphenols as compared to shaded (forest grown) Mate teas ( P < 0.05). Lower rainfall, temperature, and drying conditions had varying effects on the phenolics. On average, plantation grown Mate teas had a greater concentration of phenolics than forest grown teas. Thus, plantation grown Mate teas represent better potential sources for their commercial extraction.     

Total phenol, catechin, and caffeine contents of teas commonly consumed in the United kingdom.

Levels of total phenol, catechins, and caffeine in teas commonly consumed in the United Kingdom have been determined using reversed phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Tea bags or tea leaves were purchased from local supermarkets and extracted in boiling water for 5 min. The resulting data showed considerable variability in both total phenols [80.5-134.9 mg/g of dry matter (DM) in black teas and 87-106.2 mg/g of DM in green teas] and catechins (5.6-47.5, 51.5-84.3, and 8.5-13.9 mg/g of DM in black, green, and fruit teas, respectively); this was most probably a result of differing agronomic conditions, leaf age, and storage during and after transport, as well as the degree of fermentation. Caffeine contents of black teas (22-28 mg/g of DM) were significantly higher than in less fermented green teas (11-20 mg/g of DM). The relative concentration of the five major tea catechins ranked EGCG > ECG > EC > EGC > C. The estimated U.K. dietary intakes of total tea catechins, calculated on the basis of an average tea consumption of three cups of tea (200 mL cup, 1% tea leaves w/v), were 61.5, 92.7, and 405.5 mg/day from fruit teas, black teas, and green teas, respectively. The coefficients of variation were 19.4, 88.6, and 17.3%, respectively, indicating the wide variation in these intakes. The calculated caffeine intake ranged between 92 and 146 mg/day. In addition, many individuals will consume much larger quantities of tea, of various strengths (as determined by the brewing conditions employed). This broad spread of U.K. daily intakes further emphasizes the need for additional research to relate intake and effect in various population groups.     

Analysis of herbal teas made from the leaves of comfrey (Symphytum officinale): reduction of N-oxides results in order of magnitude increases in the measurable concentration of pyrrolizidine alkaloids

OBJECTIVES: To determine the relative quantities of two hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids, symphytine and echimidine, in teas prepared from comfrey leaves (Symphytum officinale), and to determine the potential contribution of the N-oxide forms of these alkaloids to levels of the parent alkaloids. DESIGN: Comfrey leaves were purchased from three commercial sources and used to prepare tea in a manner consistent with the methods used by consumers. An extraction scheme was devised for extraction of the alkaloids, and a gas chromatographic method was developed to quantify the two major alkaloids, symphytine and echimidine. Recognising that the N-oxide derivatives of these alkaloids have also been identified in comfrey preparations, chemical reduction was applied to determine the total quantities of the alkaloids as free bases and as N-oxide derivatives. RESULTS: The concentration of symphytine and echimidine varied considerably between teas prepared from leaves purchased from the different vendors of plant material. Moreover, a much higher concentration of symphytine was found in the tea when steps were included to reduce N-oxides prior to analysis. The treatment of pure symphytine with hot water did not generate the N-oxide derivative de novo. CONCLUSIONS: Since the pyrrolizidine alkaloids are known to be hepatotoxic, consumption of herbal teas made from comfrey leaves may be ill-advised. The concentration of pyrrolizidine alkaloids in such teas may be underestimated substantially unless the concentration of N-oxides is taken into consideration.     

New phenolic components and chromatographic profiles of green and fermented teas

A standardized profiling method based on liquid chromatography with diode array and electrospray ionization mass spectrometric detection (LC-DAD-ESI/MS) was applied to establish the phenolic profiles of 41 green teas and 25 fermented teas. More than 96 phenolic compounds were identified that allowed the teas to be organized into five groups. Epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) was the major phenolic component of green tea made from mature leaves (group 2), while green tea made from the younger buds and leaves (group 1) contained lower flavonoid concentrations. Partially fermented teas (group 3) contained one-half the EGCG content of the green tea. Fully fermented black teas (group 4) had a trace of EGCG, but contained theaflavins. Highly overfermented black tea (group 5) contained only trace amounts of flavonol glycosides and theaflavins. Over 30 phenolics are new for tea, and this is the first phenolic profile to simultaneously detect C- and O-glycosylated flavonoids, catechins, proanthocyanidins, phenolic acid derivatives, and purine alkaloids.     

Determination of tea components with antioxidant activity

Levels of essential elements with antioxidant activity, as well as catechins, gallic acid, and caffeine levels, in a total of 45 samples of different teas commercialized in Spain have been evaluated. Chromium, manganese, selenium, and zinc were determined in the samples mineralized with HNO(3) and V(2)O(5), using ETAAS as the analytical technique. The reliability of the procedure was checked by analysis of a certified reference material. Large variations in the trace element composition of teas were observed. The levels ranged from 50.6 to 371.4 ng/g for Cr, from 76.1 to 987.6 microg/g for Mn, from 48.5 to 114.6 ng/g for Se, and from 56.3 to 78.6 ng/g for Zn. The four major catechins [(-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), (-)-epigallocatechin (EGC), (-)-epicatechin gallate (ECG), and (-)-epicatechin (EC)], gallic acid (GA), and caffeine were simultaneously determined by a simple and fast HPLC method using a photodiode array detector. In all analyzed samples, EGCG ranged from 1.4 to 103.5 mg/g, EGC from 3.9 to 45.3 mg/g, ECG from 0.2 to 45.6 mg/g, and EC ranged from 0.6 to 21.2 mg/g. These results indicated that green tea has a higher content of catechins than both oolong and fermented teas (red and black teas); the fermentation process during tea manufacturing reduces the levels of catechins significantly. Gallic acid content ranged from 0.039 to 6.7 mg/g; the fermentation process also elevated remarkably gallic acid levels in black teas (mean level of 3.9 +/- 1.5 mg/g). The amount of caffeine in the analyzed samples ranged from 7.5 to 86.6 mg/g, and the lower values were detected in green and oolong teas. This study will be useful for the appraisal of trace elements and antioxidant components in various teas, and it will also be of interest for people who like drinking this beverage.