A review of Brucella sp. infection of sea mammals with particular emphasis on isolates from Scotland

Brucellae recovered from sea mammals were first reported in 1994. In the years since both culture and serological analysis have demonstrated that the infection occurs in a wide range of species of marine mammals inhabiting a vast amount of the world’s oceans. Molecular studies have demonstrated that the isolates differ from those found amongst terrestrial animals and also distinguish between strains which have seals and cetaceans as their preferred hosts. At the phenotypic level seal and cetacean strains can also be differed with respect to their CO₂ requirement, primary growth on Farrells medium and metabolic activity on galactose. Two new species B. cetaceae and B. pinnipediae have been proposed as a result. This paper provides a review of Brucella in sea mammals and updates findings from the study of sea mammals from around the coast of Scotland.     

Epidemiology of Bartonella Infection in Rodents and Shrews in Taiwan

During the period of August 2002 and November 2004, an epidemiological investigation for Bartonella infection was conducted in small mammals in Taiwan. Using whole blood culture on chocolate agar plates, Bartonella species were successfully isolated from 41.3% of the 310 animals tested. The isolation rate of Bartonella species varied among different animal species, including 52.7% of the 169 Rattus norvegicus, 28.6% of the 126 Sucus murinus, 10% of the 10 Rattus rattus and 66.7% of the three Rattus losea. Bacteremia prevalence also varied with the origin of the animals, as 56.2% of the animals captured on farms, 38.6% of the ones captured at harbour sites and 11.8% of the animals captured from urban areas were bacteremic. Through molecular analysis of the gltA gene and 16S/23S intergenic spacer region, genetic diversity of Bartonella organisms was identified, including strains closely related to Bartonella tribocorum, Bartonella grahamii, Bartonella elizabethae, Bartonella phoceensis and Bartonella rattimassiliensis. Moreover, this is the first report of zoonotic B. elizabethae and B. grahamii identified in R. losea, the lesser rice‐field rat. Various Bartonella species were identified in R. norvegicus, compared to 97.2% of Suncus murinus with unique Bartonella species. By indirect immunofluorescence antibody test, using various rodent Bartonella species as antigens, consistently low percentage of seropositivity implied that small mammals may play a role as competent reservoirs of Bartonella species in Taiwan. Future studies need to be conducted to determine whether these Bartonella species would be responsible for human cases of unknown fever or febrile illness in Taiwan, especially zoonotic B. elizabethae and B. grahamii.     

Effects of in vitro lactoferricin and lactoferrin on the head kidney cells of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.)

Antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating properties of lactoferrin have been demonstrated in mammals and in fish. However, in vivo, lactoferrin is digested by gastric pepsin treatment into the N-terminal derived peptide named lactoferricin. This has been so far overlooked in fish in vitro studies. The aim of the present study was to assess in vitro the effects of both lactoferricin and lactoferrin on the head kidney cells of European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.) in order to determine their potential as dietary additives and to get some insight into their mode of action. In vitro lactoferricin decreased significantly the chemiluminescent response of head kidney cells but did not affect the zymosan-triggered chemiluminescence activity. On the other hand, a high concentration of lactoferrin directly stimulated chemiluminescence but reduced the zymosan-triggered chemiluminescence. The bactericidal activity of head kidney cells was also significantly diminished by pre-incubation with lactoferrin in a dose-dependent manner. Although no significant effect of lactoferricin or lactoferrin was evidenced on head kidney cellular viability, absent or negative effect on the priming of respiratory burst activity suggested that care should be taken when using lactoferrin in the diet of sea bass and high doses should be avoided. Hypotheses about the mechanisms of action of lactoferricin and lactoferrin are presented.     

Influences of major histocompatibility complex class I haplotypes on avian influenza virus disease traits in Thai indigenous chickens

Natural infections with influenza viruses have been reported in a variety of animal species including humans, pigs, horses, sea mammals, mustelids and birds. Occasionally, devastating pandemics occur in domestic chickens (broiler and layers) and in humans. From November 2003 to March 2004 in many countries in Asia, there were outbreaks of H5N1 avian influenza virus, causing death of infected patients, and devastating the poultry industry. Some groups of Thai indigenous chickens survived and were therefore classified as resistant. These traits were related to immunogenetics, in particular, the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I and class II molecules. The chicken MHC class I were investigated as candidate genes for avian influenza virus disease resistance. Seven hundred and thirty Thai indigenous chickens from smallholder farms in the rural area of avian influenza virus disease outbreaks in the central part of Thailand were used in the present study. They were separated into two groups, 340 surviving chickens and 390 dead chickens (resistant and susceptible). Genomic DNA were precipitated from blood samples and feathers. The DNA were used to amplify the MHC class I gene. Data were analyzed using χ² analysis to test significant differences of influences of MHC class I haplotypes on avian influenza virus disease traits. The results represented nine MHC class I haplotypes: A1, B12, B13, B15, B19, B21, B2, B6, and BA12, and included 10 of their heterozygotes. The homozygous B21 from these collected samples had a 100% survival rate and they were the major survival group. In addition, the heterozygous B21 also had a high survival rate because of co‐dominant expression of these genes. In contrast, the homozygous B13 had a 100% mortality rate and they were the major mortality group. These results confirmed that MHC class I haplotypes influence avian influenza virus disease‐resistant traits in Thai indigenous chicken. The MHC genes can be used as genetic markers to improve disease‐resistant traits in chicken.     

A review of Brucella infection in marine mammals, with special emphasis on Brucella pinnipedialis in the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata)

ABSTRACT: Brucella spp. were isolated from marine mammals for the first time in 1994. Two novel species were later included in the genus; Brucella ceti and Brucella pinnipedialis, with cetaceans and seals as their preferred hosts, respectively. Brucella spp. have since been isolated from a variety of marine mammals. Pathological changes, including lesions of the reproductive organs and associated abortions, have only been registered in cetaceans. The zoonotic potential differs among the marine mammal Brucella strains. Many techniques, both classical typing and molecular microbiology, have been utilised for characterisation of the marine mammal Brucella spp. and the change from the band-based approaches to the sequence-based approaches has greatly increased our knowledge about these strains. Several clusters have been identified within the B. ceti and B. pinnipedialis species, and multiple studies have shown that the hooded seal isolates differ from other pinniped isolates. We describe how different molecular methods have contributed to species identification and differentiation of B. ceti and B. pinnipedialis, with special emphasis on the hooded seal isolates. We further discuss the potential role of B. pinnipedialis for the declining Northwest Atlantic hooded seal population.     

Genotyping of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chlamydophila psittaci</Emphasis> strains derived from avian and mammalian species

Eleven Chlamydophila (formerly Chlamydia) psittaci strains derived from avian and mammalian species (two from dairy cows, one from duck, three from sheep, three from wild birds, and two from pigs) were identified as genotype C by outer membrane protein A gene sequencing. Genotype C had been preferentially associated with waterfowl. This paper suggests that mammals may represent an underestimated source for genotype C strains and for human psittacosis cases.     

The Breeding Season of the Multimammate Mouse Praomys (Mastomys) Natalensis (A. Smith) in the Transvaal Highveld

Certain aquatic Oligochaeta live successfully in organic-polluted waters while others cannot tolerate such conditions. Tubifex tempUtoni Southern and Llmnodrttus hoffmeisteri (Clap.), two non-gilled species, are compared to Branchiura sowerbyi (Beddard) and Dero nivea (Aiyer), two gilled species, concerning their haemoglobin concentration, the influence of low oxygen availability on the respiration rate and their reactions in an oxygen gradient. In contrast with L. hoffmeisteri and T. templetoni where a very narrow range of respiration dependency (pO₂, 0-12 mm Hg) is found, B. sowerbyi and D. nivea have a level of respiratory dependence from pO₂, 0-131 mm Hg. Haemoglobin concentrations are 6,238 - and 6,452 g/100 cm² blood in L. hoffmeisteri and T. templetoni and 3,011 and 1,611 g/100 cm² in B. sowerbyi and D. nivea respectively. In the oxygen gradient all four species have a preference for water with a high oxygen content.     

Sources of nutrition in intertidal sea anemones from the south-western Cape,South Africa

Respiration rates of seven species of intertidal sea anemones from the south-western Cape, South Africa were measured with and without illumination to determine whether zooxanthellae contributed to their nutritional needs. Light had no significant effect on oxygen exchange in any of the species, suggesting that all are azoox- anthellate. Diets of anemones from two sites, Wooley’s Pool in False Bay and Blouberg on the Atlantic coast some 20 km north of Cape Town, were examined by gut content analysis. Seven species occurred at Wooley’s Pool, but only one (Bunodactis reynaudi) at Blouberg. At Wooley’s Pool 39.4% of anemones contained food, while at Blouberg only 7.4% did so. A wide spectrum of prey taxa were consumed by the various anemone species, although considerable dietary overlap occurred. Pelecypods, gastropods and isopods were ingested by all the species examined. Pelecypods dominated the diet of B. reynaudi at Blouberg (91% occurrence), but were recorded in only 42% of the same species at Wooley’s Pool. The frequency of occurrence of pelecypods in the guts of the other species ranged from 9% (Anthothoe stimpsoni) to 28% (Actinia equina). Gastropods were the main prey items eaten by Anthopleura michaelseni (67% occurrence), Pseudactinia flagellifera (43%) and Pseu- dactinia varia (42%), while isopods were the most frequently occurring constituent in the diets of A. stimpsoni (62%) and Bunodosoma capensis (16%). A. equina was the only species for which insects were a regular part of the diet (26% occurrence). Platyhelminths were found only in the guts of B. capensis (11%); holothurians only in B. reynaudi at Wooley’s Pool (2%), and crinoids only in P. flagellifera (2%). Large quantities of algal material and indigestible debris were also ingested, indicating that sea anemones are non-selective feeders. Cluster analysis and multi-dimensional scaling techniques revealed four distinct feeding groups among the anemone assemblages. These are characterized as microphagous (A. stimpsoni), generalist (S. capensis and A. equina), mac- rophagous (S. reynaudi at Wooley’s Pool, A. michaelseni, P. flagellifera and P. varia) and specialist bivalve- feeder (B. reynaudi at Blouberg).     

Influenza A Virus Surveillance in the Invasive American Mink (Neovison vison) from Freshwater Ecosystems,Northern Spain

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) are negative‐sense, single‐stranded and segmented RNA viruses of the Orthomyxoviridae family that may cause acute respiratory disease in a wide range of birds and mammals. Susceptibility of several species within the family Mustelidae to IAVs has been reported as a result of natural or experimental infections. The objectives of this study were to assess whether free‐ranging American mink populations from Northern Spain were infected with IAV and try to define the role of this species in the epidemiology of IAV. Sera from 689 American mink from Northern Spain captured between 2011 and 2014 were tested for the presence of antibodies against IAVs using a commercial competition cELISA. Positive sera were further analysed with haemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay. Fifteen of the 689 (2.2%, 1.3–3.6 CI_95%) of the American minks analysed were ELISA positive. No significant differences were observed between years of capture, provinces, river basins, sexes or ages of the animals. All seropositive sera resulted negative to the panel strains used in the HI assay, showing that the most relevant strains circulating in swine, the most relevant avian subtypes (H5 and H7) and the H10N4 subtype isolated in minks have not been circulating in this free‐ranging exotic carnivore from Spain. In the light of these results, the free‐range American mink from Northern Spain do not seem to have an important role in the epidemiology of IAVs.     

Extended‐spectrum beta‐lactamase‐producing Escherichia coli in common vampire bats Desmodus rotundus and livestock in Peru

Antibiotic resistance mediated by bacterial production of extended‐spectrum beta‐lactamase (ESBL) is a global threat to public health. ESBL resistance is most commonly hospital‐acquired; however, infections acquired outside of hospital settings have raised concerns over the role of livestock and wildlife in the zoonotic spread of ESBL‐producing bacteria. Only limited data are available on the circulation of ESBL‐producing bacteria in animals. Here, we report ESBL‐producing Escherichia coli in wild common vampire bats Desmodus rotundus and livestock near Lima, Peru. Molecular analyses revealed that most of this resistance resulted from the expression of bla_CTX‐M‐15 genes carried by plasmids, which are disseminating worldwide in hospital settings and have also been observed in healthy children of Peru. Multilocus sequence typing showed a diverse pool of E. coli strains carrying this resistance that were not always host species‐specific, suggesting sharing of strains between species or infection from a common source. This study shows widespread ESBL resistance in wild and domestic animals, supporting animal communities as a potential source of resistance. Future work is needed to elucidate the role of bats in the dissemination of antibiotic‐resistant strains of public health importance and to understand the origin of the observed resistance.     

Alien species of mammals and their impact on natural ecosystems in the biosphere reserves of Russia

The paper analyses the results of a survey of 37 Russian biosphere reserves using questionnaires concerning the presence of alien species of mammals, their pathways of penetration, and their impacts on protected ecosystems. The penetration of alien mammals into terrestrial ecosystems of Russia is extensive, both in places with maximum human environmental impact (inhabited areas and agricultural lands) and in biosphere reserves with minimal human impact. There are 62 mammal species registered as alien in Russian ecosystems and they account for 22% of the terrestrial mammal fauna of Russia. The percentage of alien species in biosphere reserves is 32.6% at most. In most regions, Castor fiber, Ondatra zibethicus, Nyctereutes procyonoides, Canis familiaris, Neovison vison and Sus scrofa are very dangerous, and both Castor fiber and Sus scrofa can have environment‐forming impacts.     

Pharmacokinetic aspects of penicillins,aminoglycosides and chloramphenicol in birds compared to mammals. A review

Summary

Based on a review of the literature, a comparison is made of the pharmacokinetics of penicillins, aminoglycosides, and chloramphenicol in birds and mammals.

Penicillins in birds are likely to be more dependent for their elimination on biotransformation than in mammals. Amoxycillin had a relatively low availability (0.34) after p.o. administration. Higher doses (2 to 8 times) were needed to achieve the same peak levels in birds and mammals.

Aminoglycosides, which for their elimination largely depend on renal excretion by glomerular filtration, show only minor differences in pharmacokinetics between birds and mammals.

Chloramphenicol is mainly excreted after biotransformation and large differences in pharmacokinetic parameters are to be found, not only between birds and mammals, but also between avian species.     

Antimicrobial Resistance in Wildlife: Implications for Public Health

The emergence and spread of antimicrobial‐resistant (AMR) bacteria in natural environments is a major concern with serious implications for human and animal health. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of AMR Escherichia coli (E. coli) in wild birds and mammalian species. Thirty faecal samples were collected from each of the following wildlife species: herring gulls (Larus argentatus), black‐headed gulls (Larus ridibundus), lesser black‐back gulls (Larus fuscus), hybrid deer species (Cervus elaphus x Cervus nippon) and twenty‐six from starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). A total of 115 E. coli isolates were isolated from 81 of 146 samples. Confirmed E. coli isolates were tested for their susceptibility to seven antimicrobial agents by disc diffusion. In total, 5.4% (8/146) of samples exhibited multidrug‐resistant phenotypes. The phylogenetic group and AMR‐encoding genes of all multidrug resistance isolates were determined by PCR. Tetracycline‐, ampicillin‐ and streptomycin‐resistant isolates were the most common resistant phenotypes. The following genes were identified in E. coli: bla_TEM, strA, tet(A) and tet(B). Plasmids were identified in all samples that exhibited multidrug‐resistant phenotypes. This study indicates that wild birds and mammals may function as important host reservoirs and potential vectors for the spread of resistant bacteria and genetic determinants of AMR.     

Mammals of the Kammanassie Mountains,Southern Cape Province

The mammal fauna of the Kammanassie Mountain State Forest Reserve and Mountain Catchment Area was censused in the high-rainfall southeastern sector and low-rainfall northwestern sector from 2-12 February, 1979. Collecting yielded 287 specimens of 17 species of small mammals, while the presence of a further 16 species of larger mammals was confirmed. Mean trapping success was low (2,0%) which reflects the low density of most species. Of the 10 species of small mammals collected in the southeastern sector Acomys subspinosus and Otomys irroratus were abundant, while Rhabdomys pumilio, Praomys verreauxi and Myosorex varius were common; the other five species collected were rare. In the northwestern sector the species composition and relative density of each differed. Here Aethomys namaquensis was abundant, R. pumilio common, and five other species (including A. subspinosus and O. irroratus) rare. Few carnivores occur. Stomach samples of collected specimens yielded information on feeding habits; species vary considerably in their diet. Twenty-four species of both large and small mammals occur in the southeastern part, and 25 in the northwestern sector; 17 species are common to both.     

Kinetics of substrate oxidation and hydrogen peroxide production by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides Large Colony (LC) type and Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. capri

Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides Large Colony (LC) type is a pathogen of goats causing contagious agalactia and respiratory disease, found on all continents where small ruminants are kept. It shares close genetic characteristics with M. mycoides subsp. capri. Substrate oxidation by 22 strains of M. mycoides subsp. mycoides LC from nine countries was compared with that of eight strains of M. mycoides subsp. capri from five countries. There was considerable similarity in the substrates used, but substrate saturation coefficients (K_s) varied for different substrates. Substrate utilization patterns and K_s values did not (1) significantly differentiate the LC strains from each other, (2) show any correlation with geographical origin, or (3) distinguish the LC strains from the capri strains. These results support previous studies justifying the reclassification of these subspecies as a single species.     

Taxonomic research on deep‐sea macrofauna in the South China Sea using the Chinese deep‐sea submersible Jiaolong

This paper reviews the taxonomic and biodiversity studies of deep‐sea invertebrates in the South China Sea based on the samples collected by the Chinese manned deep‐sea submersible Jiaolong. To date, 6 new species have been described, including the sponges Lophophysema eversa, Saccocalyx microhexactin and Semperella jiaolongae as well as the crustaceans Uroptychus jiaolongae, Uroptychus spinulosus and Globospongicola jiaolongi; some newly recorded species from the South China Sea have also been reported. The Bathymodiolus platifrons–Shinkaia crosnieri deep‐sea cold seep community has been reported by Li (2015), as has the mitochondrial genome of the glass sponge L. eversa by Zhang et al. (2016). The population structures of two dominant species, the shrimp Shinkaia crosnieri and the mussel Bathymodiolus platifrons, from the cold seep Bathymodiolus platifrons–Shinkaia crosnieri community in the South China Sea and the hydrothermal vents in the Okinawa Trough, were compared using molecular analysis. The systematic position of the shrimp genus Globospongicola was discussed based on 16S rRNA gene sequences.     

Growth Inhibition of Bacterial Fish Pathogens and Quorum-Sensing Blocking by Bacteria Recovered from Chilean Salmonid Farms

The main goal of this study was to find bacterial isolates with the ability to inhibit the growth of the fish pathogens Aeromonas hydrophila, Vibrio anguillarum, and Flavobacterium psychrophilum and to inhibit the blockage of the quorum-sensing (QS) system. A total of 80 gram-negative strains isolated from various freshwater Chilean salmonid farms were studied. We determined that 10 strains belonging to the genus Pseudomonas inhibited at least one of the assayed fish pathogens. Of these, nine strains were able to produce siderophores and two strains were able to inhibit the growth of all assayed pathogenic species. When the 80 strains were examined for QS-blocking activity, only the strains Pseudomonas sp. FF16 and Raoultella planticola R5B1 were identified as QS blockers. When the QS-blocker strains were analyzed for their ability to produce homoserine lactone (HSL) molecules, thin-layer chromatography analysis showed that both strains were able to produce C6-HSL– and C8-HSL–type molecules. Strain R5B1 did not show growth inhibition properties, but strain FF16 also led to inhibition of growth in A. hydrophila and F. psychrophilum as well as to siderophore production. Pseudomonas sp. FF16 exhibited potentially useful antagonistic properties and could be a probiotic candidate for the salmon farming industry.

Received July 31, 2014; accepted December 17, 2014     

16S ribosomal DNA analysis and characterization of lactic acid bacteria associated with traditional Tibetan Qula cheese made from yak milk

Twenty strains of lactic acid bacteria were isolated from six traditional Tibetan Qula cheese made from yak which were collected from northwest China, including Tibet, Qinghai and Gansu province. These isolates were subjected to phenotypic and genetic analyses. All isolates were Gram‐positive and catalase‐negative cocci that produced gas from glucose and formed D(–) isomer of lactate. Most isolates were able to grow in de Man, Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) broth at pH values 3.0–9.0 and in 6.5% NaCl (w/v). According to analytical profile index 50 carbohydrates (API 50 CH) fermentation patterns of amygdalin and arabinose, these isolates were divided into three groups (A to C). On the basis of the phylogenetic trees of 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence, the strains in all groups were placed in the cluster making up the genus Leuconostoc, which showed that all strains should belong to Leuconostoc species. Strains in Group A and Group B exhibited similarity of 16S rDNA sequence of over 99% to Leuconostoc mesenteroides, indicating that they each comprised a single species. Strains in group C were assigned to the Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides and their 16S rDNA sequence showed a similarity of over 99%. This study demonstrated that Leuconostoc was the dominant member among lactic acid bacteria in Qula cheese.     

Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis infection in wildlife on three deer farms with a history of Johne's disease

Abstract

AIM: To determine the prevalence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (Map) infection in wildlife, in pastoral landscapes with a recent history of clinical Johne's disease in livestock.

METHODS: A total of 449 wild mammals and birds from three farms in the South Island of New Zealand with recent histories of clinical Johne's disease in their deer herds were trapped and examined for gross pathological changes in the gastrointestinal tract. Additionally, individual mesenteric lymph nodes from 380 mammals, and segments of gastrointestinal tract from 32 birds were excised, homogenised and cultured for viable Map bacilli. The prevalence of Map infection was then calculated for the various species. Faecal samples from those mammals which had culture-positive tissues were further cultured for the presence of Map.

RESULTS: Gross pathological changes were identified in the gastrointestinal tract of four brushtail possums, one cat, six ferrets, 12 hares, six hedgehogs, three rabbits, one stoat, and one paradise shelduck. Infection with Map in the gastrointestinal tract was confirmed in only three of these cases, one each of brushtail possums, hares and hedgehogs. In contrast, Map infection in the absence of gross pathological changes was frequently recorded in enteric tract tissues of mammals and birds. Among mammals, Map infection was recorded in 18/73 (25%) brushtail possums, 4/23 (17%) cats, 15/42 (36%) hedgehogs and 29/113 (26%) rabbits. Among birds, intestinal tract tissue Map infection was recorded in 3/17 (18%) paradise shelducks. Among 64 of the 74 mammals which had Map culture-positive tissues, 38% (n=5) of hedgehogs and 11% (n=3) of rabbits also had culture-positive faecal samples.

CONCLUSIONS: This study is the first to identify that Map infection can be prevalent in wildlife in New Zealand. There was a high prevalence of Map infection among both scavenging and grazing wild animals. Both mammals and birds are capable of harbouring viable Map organisms in their gastrointestinal tract; further, viable Map was excreted into the environment via faeces by hedgehogs and rabbits.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Previous studies overseas have postulated a role of wildlife as reservoirs of Map infection and possible vectors of Johne's disease to livestock. Here, brushtail possums, hedgehogs and rabbits and in particular were identified as potential wildlife hosts for Map infection in NewZealand. This suggests that several wildlife species could contribute to the persistence of Map infection within a wildlife/livestock complex, and potentially, perhaps more importantly, to the spread of infection between farms.