Biomass, extracted liquid yields, sugar content or seed yields of biofuel feedstocks as affected by fertilizer

Harvesting products from plants for conversion into renewable resources is increasing in importance. Determination of nutrition requirements for the applicable crops is necessary, especially in regions where the biofuel feedstock crops have not been historically grown. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), two hybrids and one variety; sweet and grain (milo) sorghums (both Sorghum bicolor L.), one variety each, and sweet corn (Zea mays var. rugosa Bonaf.), four cultivars, were provided the recommended and twice the recommended rate of fertilizer. Biomass, expressed liquid volumes and sugar contents of sweet sorghum and sweet corn were determined. Grain yields of milo and sunflower and oil content of sunflower were determined. Sweet corn stalk sugar levels were below what is expected from field corn (maize), and were not affected by fertilizer rate. Sweet sorghum biomass and sugar content were within expected ranges and not affected by fertilizer rate. Milo grain yields were higher with increased fertilizer. Seed yield in Sunflower, which was below expected levels, was inconsistently affected by fertilizer rate, years or varieties. Overall crops year and cultivar/variety had more effect on results than did fertilizer. There does not appear to be a reason to provide fertilizer above recommended rates in production of these crops.     

Screening,identification and antagonistic effect of antagonistic bacteria JTFM1001 against aflatoxin contamination in corn

Aflatoxin is a strong carcinogenic and toxic fungal toxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and other Aspergillus species,and can seriously threaten the health of consumers,thus becoming a global concern.Corn,as an important oil and economic crop,is highly susceptible contaminated by aflatoxin.In this study,antagonistic bacteria with strong inhibitory effect on aflatoxin were screened to provide support for the treatment aflatoxin contamination control in corn.Ten strains which have strong antagonistic effects against A.flavus were isolated from healthy corn from different corn producing areas in China.Among them,the antagonistic bacteria JTFM1001 through corn kernels in vivo and field experiment,the inhibition effect of aflatoxin contamination reached above 70%and 55%,respectively.And the strain was identified as Bacillus subtilis based on its morphological,physiological and biochemical characteristics and phylogenetic analysis of 16S rDNA.In addition,our data showed that it can colonize in the rhizosphere and survive for a long time,forming the dominant flora,with broad application prospect.Finally,we were surprised to find that the antibacterial metabolites secreted by the antagonistic bacteria was one of the mechanisms of its inhibition of A.flavus and aflatoxin.This will provide us with new ideas and perspectives on the effective prevention and control of aflatoxin contamination in corn and corn oil.     

Growth,Yield and Quality of Bird-Resistant Sunflower Cultivars Found in Genetic Resources

Abstract

We examined 50 cultivars of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) for their resistance to birds in a field experiment to find parental plants for breeding. Two cultivars, Armarvirskij3497 (from Russia) and Line-41 (from Myanmar), had bird-resistant characteristics. The laboratory bird feeding test indicated that the factors associated with bird resistance were globular seed shape and heavy seed coat, because the main bird feeding on sunflower, oriental greenfinch Carduelis sinica, is relatively small and have difficulty pecking large and globular seeds. Although the two cultivars had unfavorable characters such as low tolerance to lodging and late maturity, the oil contents of their seeds was not significantly lower than that in the susceptible cultivar (63M80). The present findings suggest that Armarvirskij3497 and Line-41 are candidate parental materials for breeding bird-resistant sunflower cultivars without losing seed oil productivity.     

Yield and quality losses caused by common rust (Puccinia sorghi Schw.) in sweet corn (Zea mays) hybrids

Yield and quality of fresh ears were measured in field plots of selected hybrids of sweet corn (Zea mays L.) that were affected by rust (Puccinia sorghi Schw.) or were nearly rust-free (mancozeb-sprayed). In 1978, 28 hybrids were tested. Losses in total yield ranged from zero in the more resistant entries to nearly 50% in more susceptible entries. In 1979, three cultivars were planted. Yield losses of these cultivars were similar in ranking order to those in 1978, although the loss was greater in late-planted plots because of the greater final severity of the disease. Losses in total yield in late-planted sweet corn were 18%, 26% and 49% for cv. Sugarloaf (most resistant), cv. Jubilee (intermediate) and cv. Style Pak (most susceptible), respectively.     

Comparative susceptibility of Ostrinia furnacalis, Ostrinia nubilalis and Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1 toxins

Transgenic corn hybrids that express toxins from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) are highly effective against the European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), and the closely related Asian corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée). Since the registration of Bt corn hybrids in the U.S. in 1996, there has been a great deal of information generated on O. nubilalis. However, relatively little information exists for O. furnacalis. To help determine whether the information generated for O. nubilalis can be leveraged for decisions regarding the use of transgenic Bt corn against O. furnacalis, experiments were designed to determine whether the pattern of sensitivity to various Bt Cry1 toxins is similar between the two species. Test insects included laboratory-reared O. furnacalis originating from Malaysia, a Bt-susceptible laboratory colony of O. nubilalis maintained at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln (UNL) and an out-group consisting of the sugarcane borer, Diatraea saccharalis (F.), from Louisiana which represents a different genus from the same family. O. furnacalis and O. nubilalis exhibited a similar pattern of susceptibility to all the Cry1 toxins and were highly susceptible to the range of Bt toxins tested including Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac and Cry1F. Both of the Ostrinia species were more tolerant to Cry1Ba compared with D. saccharalis, although sensitivity of O. furnacalis was intermediate and did not differ significantly from that of O. nubilalis and D. saccharalis. D. saccharalis was also susceptible to the range of toxins tested but unlike the two Ostrinia species, was more tolerant to Cry1F and more susceptible to Cry1Ba. These results indicate that both of the Ostrinia corn borer species are similar in sensitivity to the Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1Ba and Cry1F toxins, thus suggesting shared toxin receptors and mechanisms of toxicity for the two species.     

Wild annual Helianthus anomalus and H. deserticola for improving oil content and quality in sunflower

Within the past decade, the desire for alternative sources of fuels, chemicals, and other industrial materials has received increased attention. Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) oil has the potential to be improved for nutritional and industrial purposes through selection and breeding. The narrow genetic base of cultivated sunflower has been broadened by the infusion of genes from wild species, resulting in a continuous improvement in agronomic traits. The genus Helianthus is comprised of 51 species and 19 subspecies with 14 annual and 37 perennial species. Interest in using wild species in breeding programs has increased, but concerns about the introduction of low oil concentration and quality from the wild species persist. Two annual desert species, Helianthus anomalus Blake and H. deserticola Heiser, are excellent candidates for increasing oil concentration and enhancing quality based on their adaptation to desert environments. The objective of this study was to collect achenes of H. anomalus and H. deserticola from the desert southwest USA and assess their potential for improving oil concentration and quality in cultivated sunflower. The sunflower collection took place from 16 to 23 September 2000 and covered a distance of 4100 km in three states: Utah, Arizona, and Nevada. The only H. deserticola population collected had an average oil concentration of 330 g/kg, whereas the two populations of H. anomalus had an oil concentration of 430 and 460 g/kg, the highest concentration recorded in any wild sunflower species. The linoleic fatty acid concentration in the oil of H. anomalus populations was uncharacteristically high for a desert environment, approaching 700 g/kg. A linoleic acid concentration of 540 g/kg in H. deserticola was more typical for a desert environment. H. anomalus has the largest achenes and the highest oil concentration of any wild sunflower species, and the same chromosome number (n = 17) as cultivated sunflower. These features will facilitate the introduction of genes from this wild annual progenitor into cultivated sunflower. The lower saturated fatty acid profile in this species is also a desirable trait offering the potential to reduce saturated fatty acids in cultivated sunflower. Further research will be needed to determine the inheritance of the fatty acids and oil concentration. Other agronomic traits will need to be maintained during the introgression of these traits into cultivated sunflower oil.     

Application strategies for an anthraquinone-based repellent to protect oilseed sunflower crops from pest blackbirds

Non-lethal alternatives are needed to manage the damage caused by wild birds to oilseed sunflower crops (Helianthus annuus Linnaeus). We evaluated field residues and experimental applications of an anthraquinone-based repellent (active ingredient 50% 9,10-anthraquinone) to minimize red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus Linnaeus) depredation of oilseed sunflower. Chemical residues from experimental applications of the anthraquinone-based repellent (4.7 l/ha and 9.4 l/ha; low, high) in a ripening oilseed sunflower field were 481 ppm and 978 ppm anthraquinone at the beginning of blackbird damage, and 385 ppm and 952 ppm anthraquinone at the end of blackbird damage, respectively. Prior to harvest, we observed 402 ppm and 462 ppm anthraquinone in the oil, and 27 ppm and 165 ppm anthraquinone in the pomace from crushed sunflower achenes previously sprayed with the low and high applications, respectively. For the purpose of developing application strategies useful for avian repellents, we subsequently investigated blackbird feeding response to oilseed sunflower treated with the anthraquinone-based repellent and either a registered insecticide or a registered fungicide popularly used for ripening sunflower. We observed a positive concentration–response relationship among blackbirds exposed to anthraquinone and the insecticide (a.i. 8.4% esfenvalerate), or anthraquinone and the fungicide (a.i. 23.6% pyraclostrobin). Blackbirds reliably discriminated between untreated sunflower and that treated with 1810 ppm anthraquinone and 0.1% of the insecticide or 1700 ppm anthraquinone and 0.14% of the fungicide during our preference experiments. Given that ripening achenes are inverted from conventional pesticide applications throughout much of the period associated with blackbird depredation, we also evaluated blackbird repellency of the anthraquinone-based repellent applied to involucral bracts (i.e., the back of sunflower heads) of oilseed sunflower. Blackbirds did not discriminate between untreated involucral bracts and those treated with foliar applications comparable to 4.7 l/ha or 9.4 l/ha; blackbirds consumed more achenes from untreated sunflower heads than from those treated with 18.7 l/ha of the anthraquinone-based repellent. Supplemental repellent efficacy studies should investigate blackbird response to anthraquinone-based repellents (e.g., ≥4.7 l/ha) within 10–100 ha sunflower fields and include independent field replicates with predicted bird damage, repellent application strategies developed for protection of ripening crops, pre- and at-harvest repellent residues, and bird damage and crop yield measurements.     

A preliminary study on the effects of a transgenic corn event on the non-target pest Dalbulus maidis (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae)

The inclusion of the cry gene in corn may produce direct effects on non-target pests. Our research was focused on the relationship between Bt corn germplasm, expressing the cry1F protein to control the fall armyworm [Spodoptera frugiperda (Noctuidae)], and a non-target pest, the corn leafhopper [Dalbulus maidis (Cicadellidae)]. The aim of this contribution was to elucidate if Bt corn plants have influence on the oviposition preference of the leafhopper and to evaluate the effect of the transgenic plant on the hatching rate of egg. Female corn leafhoppers were released in cages each containing two potted plants in the V2 stage: a Bt germplasm and the corresponding isogenic hybrid. Laid eggs were counted and the number of hatched nymphs recorded. D. maidis females oviposited and laid more eggs in Bt plants. The egg hatching rate was negatively affected by the Bt germplasm. In addition, a field study was conducted in order to determine the abundance of D. maidis adults in Bt corn and the corresponding non-Bt isoline. Two corn plots sown with the same germplasms as used in the laboratory bioassays were sampled weekly. In the field, the population of the corn leafhopper was higher in the Bt corn plot than in the non-Bt isoline. Possible hypotheses for the differences in abundance of the vector in the field are: a) that pleiotropic effects of Bt corn could attract adults; b) the existence of a possible direct competition between the corn leafhopper and the target pest in order to utilize the whorls of corn plants as refuge and feeding sites, so the high populations of the vector could be due to the large supply of healthy whorls in the transgenic plot; and/or c) a differential attack of natural enemies occurring in non-Bt plots.     

Susceptibility of Louisiana and Florida populations of Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to transgenic Agrisure®Viptera™ 3111 corn

In the United States, fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), is a target species of transgenic corn (Zea mays L.) expressing pyramided Bacillus thuringiensis proteins. In 2011, a total of 150 F₂ two-parent families of S. frugiperda were established using single-pair matings of feral individuals collected from three locations in Louisiana and Florida. The objective of this study was to determine the susceptibility of these field derived families of S. frugiperda to a pyramided Bt corn hybrid containing Agrisure^®Viptera™ 3111 traits. For each F₂ family, 96 neonates were assayed on leaf tissue of Agrisure^®Viptera™ 3111 corn in the laboratory. None of the 150 families survived for 7 days on leaf tissue of the Bt corn plants. The results demonstrate that the field populations of S. frugiperda collected from Louisiana and Florida were susceptible to the pyramided Bt corn product containing Agrisure^®Viptera™ 3111 traits. The data generated in this study can be used as baseline data for resistance monitoring.     

Fractionated Extracts From Gnidia kraussiana (Malvales: Thymeleaceae) as Bioactive Phytochemicals for Effective Management of Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Stored Vigna unguiculata (Fabales: Fabaceae) Seeds

One of the most important global problems is protecting food from insect pests. The negative effects of synthetic insecticides on human health led to a resurgence of interest in botanical insecticides due to their minimal ecological side effects. Therefore, the insecticidal potential of hexane, acetone, and methanol extracts of Gnidia kraussiana Meisn roots at 1 and 5g/kg, and neem seed oil (NSO), used as standard insecticide, were evaluated. Ovicidal and larvicidal toxicity was tested by treating freshly laid eggs and larvae at different immature stages of Callosobruchus maculatus (F.). Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (L.) Walp seed damage and weight loss were assessed after a storage period of 4 mo. Repellency effects were detected in choice test using a linear olfactometer. All the fractions were toxic to C. maculatus; however, their bioactivities were inversely correlated with products polarity. Extracts proved to be more toxic than the commercial NSO. The acetone extract was more effective against immature stages of C. maculatus than the methanol extract; eggs, first-, and second-instar larvae being the more susceptible. No cowpea seed damage and weight loss were recorded from the seeds treated with hexane and acetone extracts at the dosage of 5 g/kg, after 4 mo of storage. Extracts evoked stronger repellency effects compared with the tested standard insecticide. According to the above, hexane and acetone extracts are good candidates for incorporation in integrated pest management programs for the control of C. maculatus in stored cowpea seeds.     

Changes in Seed Quality during Maturation of Sunflower under High or Changeable Water Table Conditions

Abstract

Growth, yield and quality of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) in a rotational paddy field were compared with those in an upland field. In the rotational paddy field the growth was significantly suppressed and the seed and oil yields were significantly lower than those in the upland field. In the maturing period, oil accumulated in seeds until about 25 d after flowering (DAF) in both fields, but less in the rotational paddy field than in the upland field. Differences in oil contents (per seed) between the fields were seen from about 25 DAF onward. The fatty acid in seeds changed with maturing of plants. In mid-oleic hybrids, oleic acid increased remarkably until about 25 DAF and then decreased slightly; linoleic acid content decreased until about 14 DAF and then tended to increase. In linoleic acid hybrids, oleic acid increased until about 14 DAF and then decreased; the linoleic acid content tended to be low until about 14 DAF and then increased. Although the temporal patterns of fatty acid compositions during seed maturation were similar in both fields, the oleic acid content tended to be lower in the rotational paddy field even under the same climatic conditions and ripening periods. The differences between the fields were seen clearly from around 25 DAF. We discuss our findings with regard to physiological changes in developing seeds and the effects of high or changeable soil moisture content on sunflower growth and quality.     

Resistance of sunflower hybrids to imazamox and tribenuron-methyl

The response of the imazamox resistant and susceptible sunflower hybrids Rimi and S to imazamox and of tribenuron-methyl resistant and susceptible hybrids Rsu and S to tribenuron-methyl was investigated both in a whole-plant bioassay and in field experiments. Plants were treated post-emergence with imazamox/tribenuron-methyl at four true leaves (grown in pots) and at four–six true leaves (grown in field). Visual injury estimation and vegetative parameters (plant height, fresh weight, dry weight, leaf area) were recorded. ALS (acetolactate synthase) enzyme activity in different herbicide concentrations was determined in vitro. Pronounced differences were noted between Rimi and S hybrids and between Rsu and S hybrids in the vegetative parameters and ALS activity. Namely, Rimi hybrid was 9–64-fold more resistant than S for vegetative parameters and about 3000-fold for ALS activity, while Rsu hybrid was 14–56-fold more resistant than S for vegetative parameters, and about 2600-fold for ALS activity.     

Night temperature and intercepted solar radiation additively contribute to oleic acid percentage in sunflower oil

Oil fatty acid composition of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) closely depends on the environmental conditions during grain filling. Temperature and solar radiation are main environmental factors driving oil chemical composition, as revealed by experiments in which the effects of these variables were investigated separately. The present work aims at investigating whether both temperature and irradiance act independently or they interact in exerting their effects on oleic acid percentage of sunflower oil. With this purpose, minimum night temperature (MNT) and intercepted solar radiation (ISR) per plant were together modified during the grain filling period of the traditional sunflower hybrid ACA 885. Two experimental approaches were performed: (a) radiation was modified in three locations at different latitudes (location × radiation experiments), (b) radiation and temperature were modified in a factorial design within one location by using field shelters (in situ temperature × radiation experiments). Regardless location or year effect, oleic acid percentage increased with ISR per plant up to a maximum value, which depended on MNT. In situ temperature × radiation experiments showed that plant heating increased oleic acid percentage under any radiation condition assayed, while plant shading produced a drop in oleic acid that was independent of MNT. Statistically significant interaction between MNT and ISR per plant was not detected. A mathematical relationship that considered that MNT and ISR per plant additively contribute to oleic acid percentage was established and verified using data from location × radiation experiments. This equation predicted well independent experimental data from in situ temperature × radiation experiments.     

Oxidative stability index of vegetable oils in binary mixtures with meadowfoam oil

The oxidative stability indices (OSI) of several vegetable oils were determined at 110°C. Meadowfoam oil, Limnanthes alba, was found to be the most stable oil with an OSI time of 67.3 h for refined oil and 246.9 h for crude oil. Other oils with good oxidative stabilities were refined high oleic sunflower and crude jojoba oil (Simmondsia chinensis) with OSI times of 49.8 and 34.5 h respectively. The unusually high OSI time of crude meadowfoam oil could not be attributed to its tocopherol content since refining did not significantly alter the tocopherol content, but significantly reduced the stability. A relationship of iodine value to antioxidant was developed for vegetable oils; however, this linear relationship did not account for the unusually high oxidative stability of meadowfoam oil. Binary mixtures of vegetable oils were also examined for enhanced oxidative stability. Small amounts of crude meadowfoam oil gave enhanced oxidative stability in mixtures with jojoba, triolein and castor oils. Triolein/crude meadowfoam oil mixtures showed the most dramatic improvements in OSI time with a 5% (w/w) addition of crude meadowfoam causing a 21-fold increase in the OSI time. Meadowfoam mixtures with jojoba improved the OSI time of jojoba from 31.1 to 52.7 h, when 10% crude meadowfoam oil was added. A study of oxidative stability with respect to olefin position showed that the Δ5 double bond was the most stable by more than an order of magnitude. The oxidative stability of meadowfoam FAMEs at 90°C gave an OSI time of 4.9 h which was the same as methyl erucate and methyl petroselenate, but less than methyl oleate which had an OSI time of 14.8 h. However, when methyl 5-eicosenoate was isolated in high purity (monoene >96%) and tested, it gave an OSI time of 69.4 h.     

Decoy plantings for reducing blackbird damage to nearby commercial sunflower fields

Field tests were conducted in North Dakota in August, September and October 1981 to 1983 inclusive, to determine if decoy plantings of nine sunflower fields and one interplanted corn/sunflower field would reduce blackbird (Icterinae) damage to nearby commercial sunflower fields. Total seed consumption by blackbirds of sunflower (90 ha) and corn (7 ha) was 87860 kg, worth US$26533·72 based on the average 3-year market price of $0·302/kg. The average cost of planting a decoy field was $74/ha for a total cost of $7178. The yearly cost-benefit ratio varied from 1:2 · 1 to 1:4·7 with an overall study average of 1:3·7. From 1981 to 1983, the annual median seed consumption in decoy fields was 917, 1210, and 1121 kg/ha compared with surrounding commercial fields within 11 km of the decoy fields which had losses of 4,99 and 115 kg/ha, respectively. In 1981, a comparison of losses between sunflower fields in Bottineau County and commercial sunflower fields within 11 km of decoy fields provided statistical evidence (P =0·0651) that there was less damage to commercial fields surrounding the decoy crops; this difference in losses was attributed to the presence of the decoy fields. Average blackbird numbers observed entering decoy fields per minute per hectare were 69 (1981), 49 (1982) and 91 (1983). Peak roost populations associated with decoy fields ranged from 72000 to 215000 blackbirds. Overall, redwings constituted about 83% of all blackbirds observed in decoy fields.     

Characteristics, chemical composition and utilisation of Albizia julibrissin seed oil

The physicochemical characteristics, fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions, DSC profile and UV/vis spectrum of oil extracted from Albizia julibrissin seeds were determined in this study. The oil content and the moisture of the seeds were 10.50% and 1.56%. The free fatty acid, the peroxide value, the p-anisidine value, the saponification value, the iodine value were 2.54%, 6.61 mequiv. O₂/kg of oil, 1.98, 190.63 (mg KOH/g) and 111.33 (g/100 g of oil), respectively. The specific extinction coefficients K₂₃₂, K₂₆₈ were 7.55 and 0.96, respectively. Linoleic acid (C_18:2, 58.58%), palmitic acid (C₁₆, 13.86%) and oleic acid (C_18:1, 10.47%) were the dominant fatty acids in the A. julibrissin seed oil. LLL (36.87%), OLL (21.62%), PLL (16.69%) and PLO + SLL (8.59%) were the abundant triacylglycerol representing > 83% of the seed oil (L: linoleic, O: oleic, P: palmitic, S: stearic). The DSC melting curves reveal that: melting point = −14.70° C and melting enthalpy = 54.34 J/g. A. julibrissin seed oil showed some absorbance in the UV-B and UV-C ranges. The results of the present analytical study show that A. julibrissin is a promising oilseed crop, which can be used for making soap, hair shampoo and UV protectors. Furthermore, the high level of unsaturated fatty acids makes it desirable in terms of nutrition.     

Monitoring Cry1Ab susceptibility in Asian corn borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on Bt corn in the Philippines

Between 2002 and 2004, collections of egg masses of Asian corn borer (ACB), Ostrinia furnacalis (Guenée) were made from corn-planting sites on the major Philippine islands of Luzon (Laguna, Pangasinan, Camarines Sur and Isabela provinces) and Mindanao (Bukidnon and South Cotabato provinces). The resulting neonates were bioassayed for susceptibility to Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Cry1Ab protein. The median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀s) for the different collections ranged from 0.42 to 2.37 ng/cm². The bioassay results suggest that Philippine corn borer populations were highly susceptible to Cry1Ab protein prior to the widespread deployment of Bt corn. The upper limit of the estimated LC₉₉ (104 ng/cm²) from the pooled bioassay data was selected as a candidate diagnostic concentration and subsequently tested on eleven ACB populations. Results of the validation assays showed that the mortality response of all the tested ACB populations was higher than the expected mortality (99%). Therefore, the concentration of 104 ng/cm² was used to monitor susceptibility in ACB populations in the Philippines. Monitoring of field populations during 2009 in areas where Bt corn had been grown for 3 years found some enhanced survival of neonates at the diagnostic concentration but progeny of the diagnostic-concentration survivors did not survive on Bt corn, indicating that ACB populations in the Philippines remain susceptible to Cry1Ab-containing Bt corn hybrids.     

Intercepted solar radiation affects oil fatty acid composition in crop species

Solar radiation intercepted during grain filling affects growth of grain crops. Its effects on oil fatty acid composition have not been investigated. The objective of this work was to investigate the effect of intercepted solar radiation per plant on oil fatty acid composition in four crops. An experiment including a cultivar of soybean, maize and sunflower was sown at Balcarce, Argentina, during two growing seasons (2001–02 and 2004–05) and two experiments with a rape cultivar were conducted during in 2004 and 2005. The amount of intercepted solar radiation during grain filling was modified by shading (50–80%) and thinning plants (50%). In addition, the same cultivars of soybean and maize were sown in the field at Paraná, Argentina, during the 2004–05 growing season and in growth chambers under different day/night temperatures during grain filling. Regardless of the species, oleic acid percentage increased as intercepted solar radiation (ISR) per plant increased. The highest difference (13%) was observed in sunflower (shading vs. thinning) and the increase in oleic acid was associated with a reduction in both linoleic and linolenic acids. Saturated fatty acid percentage was not affected by intercepted solar radiation per plant. Differences among radiation treatments were observed not only at physiological maturity but also at earlier stages of the grain filling period. In soybean and maize, increasing daily mean temperature increased oleic acid percentage (r² ≥ 0.52). Changes in fatty acid composition in radiation experiments and treatments were not accounted for by variations in temperature (differences among treatments were ≤1 °C). In sunflower and maize, the source (ISR)–sink (grain number) ratio during the grain filling period better explained changes in oleic acid percentage than per plant ISR alone. Changes in fatty acid composition due to radiation treatments were as large as variations produced by changes in temperature in soybean and maize, but not in sunflower. Based on these results, management practices that increase intercepted radiation by the plant during grain filling could contribute to obtain oils with higher oleic acid percentage.     

Determining the toxicity and hazard to fish of a rice insecticide

The experiments described were carried out to establish whether the effects of the insecticide, Ripcord (active ingredient cypermethrin), on fish, would limit its use in rice. Laboratory and field experiments were carried out, and the effects of cypermethrin were compared with those of a ‘standard insecticide’, carbofuran, widely used for pest control in rice, and a ‘positive control’, chlorfenvinphos, expected to be toxic to fish in rice paddies at insecticidally effective rates. Acute toxicity tests in the laboratory with the technical materials on the fish Tilapia nilotica showed cypermethrin, with a 96 h LC₅₀ value of 2 μg/l, to be some 20 times more toxic than chlorfenvinphos, with a 96 h LC₅₀ value of 39 μg/l, and some 250 times more toxic than carbofuran with a 96 h LC₅₀ of 480 μg/l. The LC₅₀ values obtained from laboratory tests with formulated products (cypermethrin EC, chlorfenvinphos granules and carbofuran granules) on T. nilotica and Cyprinus carpio were broadly in agreement with those obtained from the tests with the technical materials and confirmed C. carpio to have a similar susceptibility to that of T. nilotica. However, a field experiment carried out in paddy rice in Korea with commercial formulations and at commercial application rates showed that mortality of caged C. carpio was much less with cypermethrin (< 15%) than with chlorfenvinphos (97%) or carbofuran (67%). A second field experiment in Spain where cypermethrin was applied by air resulted in no mortality of caged C. carpio held in the paddy. It is concluded that the limited toxic effects of cypermethrin on fish in the field, when compared with those of chlorfenvinphos and carbofuran, make it acceptable for use in rice. The effects of cypermethrin were limited in comparison with those of chlorfenvinphos and carbofuran because only very low application rates of cypermethrin are needed to give pest control. The penetration of the liquid cypermethrin formulations into the water was also lower than that of the granular insecticides and, finally, cypermethrin was more rapidly lost from water. Together, these factors are sufficient to explain the minimal toxic effects of cypermethrin in the field when compared with chlorfenvinphos and carbofuran, despite its considerably higher acute toxicity determined in laboratory tests.     

Susceptibility to downy mildew (Plasmopara viticola) of different Vitis varieties

The susceptibility of different varieties of Vitis vinifera and other Vitis species to downy mildew (caused by Plasmopara viticola) in field, greenhouse and laboratory tests was compared over a period of three years. Different degrees of susceptibility were detected. The most susceptible V. vinifera varieties were ‘Treixadura’ and ‘Albariño; ‘Cabernet Sauvignon’, ‘Mencía’ and ‘Chasselas Doré’ were the least susceptible. The non-vinifera varieties showed no symptoms of downy mildew in the field. Surprisingly, in laboratory and greenhouse tests, the rootstock 110-R was much more susceptible to infection than S04. No relationship was seen between susceptibility and berry colour, or the time of sprouting or fruit ripening. Neither was any correlation seen between susceptibility and the condition of being a traditional or introduced variety. Better knowledge of the susceptibility to downy mildew of different varieties would allow for growers and breeders to select those that are more resistant.