Home garden system dynamics in Southern Ethiopia

Home gardens in southern Ethiopia are regarded as efficient farming systems, allowing interactions and synergies between crop, tree and livestock components. However, these age-old traditional home gardens are evolving rapidly in response to changes in both the socio-economic and biophysical environment. Altered cropping patterns, farm size and component interactions may affect the systems’ sustainability. Home gardens exhibit a huge diversity in farms and farming systems, which needs to be understood in order to design interventions for improvement. Dynamics of home gardens were studied over two-decades (1991–2013) based on a survey of 240 farm households and focus group discussions. Farms were grouped into five types: Khat-based, Enset-cereal-vegetable, Enset-based, Enset-coffee and Enset-livestock. Farm trajectories revealed a shift from food-oriented Enset-based and Enset-livestock systems to (1) cash crop oriented khat-based systems, and (2) combined food and cash crop oriented Enset-cereal-vegetable systems. In densely populated, market proximate areas a major trend was expansion of khat, from 6 to 35% of the area share per farm, while the combined area share of enset and coffee decreased from 45 to 25%. Concurrently, the cattle herd size fell from 5.8 TLU to 3.9 TLU per household. In medium populated, less accessible areas the trend was consolidation of combined production of food and cash crops. Enset and coffee together maintained a share of over 45%. Easy transport and marketing of the perishable cash-generating khat compared with traditional crops favoured its cultivation among smallholders located close to markets. The insights in home garden change in response to increasing population pressure, decreasing farm size and market development may help to design interventions to increase system sustainability.     

The structure of four home gardens in the Petén,Guatemala

Forest-covered home gardens around the tropical world vary in their structure, but serve to supply food and other products for direct family consumption or marketing. Little quantitative data exist defining home garden structure. Thus, this study was undertaken to examine the variation in home garden structures in response to market or household needs and the subsequent variation in light interception and productivity.Four home gardens were studied in the Department of the Petén, in northern Guatemala. Areal extent and height of canopies were mapped in transects through four gardens representing a range of site water regimes and market orientation. Light intensities incident on the ground were measured along each transect to assess light use. Results showed structural complexity, with full canopy closure in the one or more layers within the canopy for most gardens. The garden architectures made efficient use of light and space, with intersive management for food and fuel production. Farmers grew the crops for both cash and family subsistence. One home garden on a comparatively dry site with shallow soil seemed less structured, with only a single broken canopy layer, but with diverse species of plants.The results indicate that development of gardens in this area utilized existing trees, thinning them to leave the most useful, and inserting other desirable trees and shrubs in the understory and in open spaces. This strategy seemed to maximize light use, regardless of market orientation.This look at the structure and composition of four home gardens, in a forested area of current immigration, demonstrated (1) variety of organization and plant components, (2) different architecture for different soil/site conditions and market orientations, and (3) efficient use of available light through the arrangement of plants.     

小寨子沟自然保护区槭树科植物资源及开发利用研究

四川省北川县小寨子沟保护区内分布有槭树科植物1属,13种,两亚种1变种,占全国槭树科植物种类的11%,占四川省槭树科植物种类的36%。其中,中国特有种13种,四川特有种3种,属于资源较丰富的地区。在对小寨子沟槭树科植物资源进行实地调查、整理和分析的基础上,对其开发利用价值进行了简单的评价,并建议要加强对野生资源保护、加强引种驯化及选种育种和槭树科植物资源综合开发利用,以丰富四川绿化景观树种。     

Diversity and Traditional Knowledge Concerning Wild Food Species in a Locally Managed Forest in Nepal

This study documents wild food species in a locally managed forest by the inhabitants of nine villages in the Dolakha district, Nepal. It presents data on their diversity, and traditional knowledge on plant use, propagation and local domestication collected through household and key informant interviews, forest transects inventories and herbaria verifications. Sixty-two wild food plants belonging to 36 families were recorded; most of them (80%) have multiple uses. Many of the food plants are herbaceous (24 species) and produce fruits for consumption (46%). Most of the food plants are consumed by the local communities as snacks, and are supplementary and nutritionally important especially prior to the harvest of staple foods. Elder women (>35 years) are the most knowledgeable group, being able to describe the use of 65% of all edibles as compared to only 23% described by young men (<35 years). Many villagers also possess knowledge on the modes of propagation for the food plants that may be used in the process of domestication. The local communities expressed a strong desire for the establishment of community enterprises based on the wild food resources for long-term income generation sources. To accomplish this, development of collective co-operative strategies based on assessments of the biology, size of harvestable population, sustainable harvesting techniques, and marketing value and demand of promising species would be required. Moreover domestication potential based on species identified in this paper and other species that local communities have knowledge on ought to be encouraged through incentive and policy interventions.     

Conservation policy–people conflicts: a case study from Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve (a World Heritage Site), India

Perceptions of local people towards conservation policy and related management interventions, nature and magnitude of policy–people conflicts and, possible options for conflict resolution were analysed in the Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, a World Heritage Site in Indian Himalaya. People's perceptions were discerned through participatory discussions covering 419 households distributed in 10 villages in the buffer zone. Traditional uncodified rights of local people were substantially reduced through policy interventions set in since 1860s. Local people as well as tourists were excluded from the core zone covering an area of 625 km² since 1982. Deterioration of rural economy due to damage to crop and livestock by wildlife and, termination of opportunities of income from wild medicinal plant resources and tourism in the core zone were the key negative impacts of conservation policy felt by more than 90% of respondents. Mean annual economic loss per household was estimated as Rs 1285, Rs 1195 and Rs 156 due to damage caused by wildlife to food crops, fruit trees and beehives, respectively, Rs 1587 due to ban on collection of wild medicinal plants for marketing and Rs 7904 due to ban on tourism in the core zone. Reserve authority granted compensation of livestock killed by wildlife but it was hardly 5% of the market value of killed livestock as assessed by the people. People did not appreciate much the present benefits from the reserve management in the form of wages for carrying out afforestation work, partial compensation of livestock depredation and availability of solar power devices, wool, and spinning devices. Approximately 95% respondents identified empowerment of local people in respect of realising income from timber from dead/diseased trees in community forests, income from medicinal plants in buffer zone and opening of core zone for tourism as potential development options. Improvement in rural economy, the prime concern of local people, has not received as much attention as legal enforcement of protection by the reserve management. There is a need for developing policies and management actions that serve the economic interests of local people together with enhancement of environmental conservation goal.     

Forest utilization patterns and socio-economic status of the Van Gujjar tribe in sub-Himalayan tracts of Uttarakhand, India

The present study was conducted on the Van Gujjar tribe inhabiting a sub-Himalayan tract in the North Western Himalayas of Uttarakhand State,India.The Van Gujjars have been practicing transmigration over hundreds of years.They migrate each year with their households and livestock between summer and winter pastures.A few years ago with the announcement of the establishment of the Rajaji National Park,the tribe has been forced out of the forest area and rehabilitated outside the park,which has affected their lifestyle.The newly established rehabilitation colony in the Gandikhata area of Haridwar District of Uttarakhand State was taken as a case study.The aims of the present study were to understand and evaluate the socio-economic status of the Van Gujjars in their newly established rehabilitation colony,the utilization pattern of forest resources by the tribe and their relative preference for selective trees for various uses.A total of 176 households were interviewed (giving equal weight to all economic classes and family every size) by using pre-structured questionnaires.The education level was very low (12.9%) and the average income per household was recorded as Rs.36000 (approximately $ 803) per year.The major source of income was dairy production (80.6%) followed by labor employment (13.9%),NTFPs (4.2%) and agricultural production (1.4%).More than 90% of fuel wood and fodder is extracted from the forest.The average fuel wood and fodder consumptions per household per day were recorded as 25.86 and 21.58 kg,respectively.A total of 35 species of cultivated plants and 89 species of wild plants were found to be utilized as food sources.Selectively 25 wild tree species are well known as being used by the Van Gujjars as fodder,fuel wood,agricultural implements,household articles,dye,medicine,fiber and other products.According to their utility value,the most preferred and useful tree species is Ougeinia oojeinensis,followed by Terminalia alata,Bombax ceiba,Shorea robusta and Dalbergia sissoo.     

Trade-offs between rubber production and maintenance of diversity: the structure of rubber gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

The goal of this study was to assess the potential of small-holder rubber cultivation in agroforestry gardens to fulfill simultaneously the goals of conservation and sustainable rural development. I examined the structure and species composition of trees in 11 rubber gardens in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, using a single 0.10 ha plot per garden. Although 41 distinct morphotypes were encountered, rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) dominated the sample of 370 trees. Richness within plots varied (3–15 morphotypes), as did the predominance of rubber (24–97% of all basal area, 24–91% of all individuals). The importance of rubber within a garden was significantly negatively correlated with the number of morphotypes present. This result suggests that tree diversity may limit potential productivity of rubber gardens. Thus, small-holders may not be willing to maintain diversity at the scale of a single garden. Although species-accumulation curves indicate that substantial tree diversity may exist across all rubber holdings, diversity is likely to be lost from the system if individual owners reduce species richness in their gardens. Rubber agroforestry as currently practiced in West Kalimantan is not an ideal model for matching rural development needs with the achievement of conservation goals. Other models, such as tengkawang- and durian-based fruit gardens, do exist in Kalimantan and elsewhere, and should be evaluated for incorporation into policy and development strategies.     

野生花卉资源样地调查法研究简报

报道了一种新的野生花卉资源样地调查样方法，即利用县级森林资源调查固定样地的调查成果，在固定样地中抽取并测设里生花卉资源查样地，该方法科学性较高，能达到调查成本低，效率高，精度有保证的目的，对野生经济植物资源调查具有推广价值和指导意义，文中对野生卉资源样地调查方法和蕴藏量估算作了简要介绍。     

The contribution of agroforestry systems to reducing farmers' dependence on the resources of adjacent national parks: a case study from Sumatra, Indonesia

There is much debate about the way conservation and development are best integrated to reduce the encroachment pressures of poor rural communities on the biodiversity resources of protected areas in the tropics. One frequently recommended instrument is to intensify farming systems in the adjacent areas, so as to decrease the need to harvest resources from national parks. This study examined this issue by analyzing the effects of different household land uses in villages near a national park on their propensity to harvest resources from the park. In the northern part of the Kerinci Seblat National Park (Sumatra Island, Indonesia) the park buffer zone is comprised largely of community or village forests and human settlements. The village forests were formerly managed as production forests and provided significant cash income to the village. They were converted into farmland, particularly to mixed-tree gardens or agroforests. Natural forest coverage has now declined to 10% of the former area within village forest land. We analyzed the characteristics of the mixed gardens and village forests, and their practical contribution to reducing farmers' dependence on the adjacent national park resources. Households with farms that were more diversified were found to have much less dependency on the national park resources. Households that farmed only wetland rice fields registered the highest value of forest products obtained from inside the park. Households that farmed only mixed gardens had an intermediate level of park resource extraction, while those that had farms composed of both components (i.e. wetland rice fields and mixed gardens) had a dramatically lower level of economic dependency on park resources than households in either of the other two categories.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The role of non-timber forest products during agroecosystem shift in Xishuangbanna,southwestern China

There are few observations on the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in shifting from subsistence to commercial plantation-dominated systems with long-term monitoring, despite interests in NTFPs for sustainable development and livelihood dependence. During 1998–2004, we conducted an annual survey of households in the two villages, Baka and Daka, which represent different stages in the shift from a subsistence agroecosystem to a rubber plantation-dominated system in Xishuangbanna, southwestern China. Significant negative correlations were observed between gross income and dependence on NTFPs-generated income in both Baka and Daka villages (P = 0.029 in Baka and P = 0.028 in Daka), which is supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy households. When the rubber price dropped during 1998–2001, the NTFPs income of Baka increased greatly from US$59.10 to US$145 per household, or from 6.4% to 26.6% of household gross income. In contrast, in Daka village, NTFPs income increased by insignificant amounts of US$1.6 per household in 1998 to US$23.8 in 2001, but this was compensated by an increase in income from off-farm work of US$11 to US$147 (an increase from 1.8% to 16.2% of gross income per household) from 1998 to 2001 in Daka. NTFPs retained important roles both in alleviating risk associated with monoculture price fluctuations and in generating income for relatively poor people.     

河北省龙头山区野生草本花卉植物资源及园林应用

龙头山区草本花卉有 5 1科、16 7属、2 6 7种 ,其中观赏价值较高的有 10 0多种 ,以菊科、毛茛科、唇形科、豆科、玄参科、禾本科、十字花科、蔷薇科居多。这些野生花卉在花形、花色上具有鲜明的特征 ,是花卉育种的重要物质基础。介绍了龙头山区野生草本花卉植物资源的特点及在园林中的应用 ,重点阐述了 35个具有代表性的主要种的自然分布区域、特征、生境、种子萌发特性及在花卉产业、植物造景中的作用 ,并就其开发利用提出建议。     

Measuring forest and wild product contributions to household welfare: Testing a scalable household survey instrument in Indonesia

Systematic comparisons of human dependence on forests and environmental resources have been challenging, as a result of heterogeneous methodologies. Specialized Forestry Modules have been developed, with the goal of filling current information gaps concerning the economic importance of forest and wild products in household welfare and rural livelihoods. Results from a pilot assessment of the Forestry Modules in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, are presented, showing that the Forestry Modules perform well in extracting the expected information: mean per capita forest and wild product income shifts according to the geographical “forest gradient”. Significantly, in the forest-rich upstream village, mean forest and wild product income and mean forest-related wage and business incomes exceeds current mean agricultural income statistics for West Kalimantan and mean non-agricultural rural household incomes in the lowest bracket. Consumption of forest products and importance as a coping strategy was higher in the most upstream village, where sale of forest products in times of shock was more marked in the most downstream village (where forest coping strategies were also least important). The Forestry Modules' detailed and systematic approach can help ensure that contributions of forest and wild products are not underestimated in national figures.     

Soil fertility under Calliandra calothyrsus hedgerows and other land-use treatments following forest clearance in Jamaica

An experiment in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica investigated the consequences of three land-use treatments applied following forest clearance on soil fertility and resulting crop growth over a five year period. The treatments were: maintained weed-free without cultivation (bare); cultivated with herbaceous crops (agriculture); and cultivated with herbaceous crops and intercropped with Calliandra calothyrsus contour hedges (agroforestry) and compared with an uncleared secondary forest control (forest). Nitrogen mineralisation rates declined over time since forest clearance in the cleared treatments, but not in the forest. In the second and third years after clearance nitrogen mineralisation was higher under the hedgerows than all other treatments. However, by the fifth year this had reduced to net immobilization (both under and between hedgerows). Under controlled shade-house conditions bioassay plant growth was similar in soil from agricultural plots and from forest plots. In all the soils bioassay plant growth showed a slight (not significant) positive response to P addition. However, it did show a large positive response to N addition in all soils: most for agriculture soils, least for forest soils and intermediate for agroforestry. Crop plants growing in the agroforestry plots had significantly higher growth than those in the agriculture plots. This was sufficient to lead to grain yield per hectare being only 5% lower in agroforestry plots despite there being c. 20% fewer maize plants per hectare than in the agriculture plots. However, the results suggest that there was no clear positive effect of C. calothyrsus on soil fertility five years after establishment.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Economic dependence on forest resources: A case from Dendi District, Ethiopia

This paper examines variation in dependence on forest resources among rural households in Chilimo, Ethiopia, and the income-equalizing effects of such resources. Data were collected through a systematic questionnaire survey of 102 households, randomly selected from two peasant associations in the area. Forest income contributed 39% of the average household income, roughly equal to agriculture, which contributed 40%. Forest income was more important than all other income sources combined for the poorest 40% of households and contributed more to household income than agriculture for 65% of households. While forest income represents 59% of the total household income for the poorest quintile, the contribution drops to 34% for the wealthiest quintile. On the other hand, the rich households derive a larger absolute income from forest resources than the poor households. Forest resources have an important income-equalizing potential among the rural households. Reduced access to forest resources would greatly affect the welfare of the rural population and increase wealth differentiation among rural households in the study area.     

Enhancing the food security of upland farming households through agroforestry in Claveria,Misamis Oriental,Philippines

The impact of agroforestry on food security of upland farmers is least recognized and appreciated given that the linkage between them is quite complex and not well understood. The crucial role of agroforestry in enhancing food supply and augmenting family income is commonly ignored. This study aimed to get a deeper understanding of the role of agroforestry in ensuring food security of farming households in the Philippine uplands. A combination of participatory approaches including participatory rural appraisal, household survey, focused group discussions, field experiments and simulation modeling were used for the study conducted in Claveria, Northern Mindanao, Philippines. The first major finding was that the prime responsibility for ensuring adequacy of food production and supply for the farming households rested on the husband and wife. The second major finding based on the simulation results was that agroforestry increased and stabilized corn yields under hedgerow system. Moreover, fruits from perennial crops and trees served as secondary food crops especially during lean months of food supply. The last major finding was that the adoption of agroforestry significantly increased the level of benefits by around 42–137%, compared with the low income from continuous annual monocropping. The key to making upland farm households food secure is to increase the productivity of their farms and home gardens. A good start is to promote the agroforestry system in upland areas, and it is thereby recommended that both national and local government units mainstream their policies and efforts toward promotion of agroforestry adoption in the Philippine uplands.     

植物景观在住宅园林景观中的运用——以南昌住宅园林为例

植物景观是住宅园林景观中最重要的组成部分。结合当前南昌住宅园林建设的实际情况,分析植物景观在小区园林中不可替代的景观功能和生态功能,并力求探索如何认识植物景观的类型及如何在植物造景中进行植物配置。     

贵州梵净山乡土园林植物资源调查及应用

贵州梵净山具有丰富的植物资源,可作为铜仁地区具有开发利用价值的乡土园林植物在100种之上,这些植物中已确定的达71种,其中蕨类植物5种,裸子植物4种,被子植物62种。对这71种植物可从庭院、地被层等6个方面进行开发利用。     

我国野生植物资源的利用分析及管理对策研究

在对目前我国野生植物资源利用的现状进行分析的基础上,着重阐述了野生植物经营利用在支撑我国中医药产业发展、解决三农问题和促进实现生物多样性价值方面的重要意义;进而对当前我国野生植物可持续利用方面存在的法律法规不健全、管理体制不顺、管理职能缺位、资源利用与培育关系认识不足等问题进行了剖析;同时提出了构建野生植物持续利用的法律保障机制、资源培育的激励机制、整体资源利用的宏观调控机制和市场诱导机制等具体管理对策。     

Quantitative and financial evaluation of non-timber forest products (case study: Zemkan basin forests,West of Iran)

Although Zagros forests in western Iran lack industrial timber value due to the severe climate and socioeconomics problems, non-timber products are of great value and importance due to their high economic potential and also their potential to improve the welfare of forest-dwelling and forest-fringe villagers. This study was done in the forests of the Zemkan basin, an important part of central Zagros forests, Iran, to recognize the non-timber forest products (NTFP_S), investigate their potential economic value and role in people’s livelihood. Data, collected using forest cruising, participatory observations, interviews with indigenous and local persons and experts, identified wild pistachio resin, wild pistachio fruit, oak fruit and oak syrup (Shokeh manna) among the non-timber products in this basin with total potential harvestable NTFPs of 77.16, 771.602, 13248.68, and 1324.868 tons per year, respectively. The economic rent from NTFPs is 33 US$/ha/year and its total expected values with consideration of real interest rate when the exploiter invests the capital in the bank (6.4 %) and when money is borrowed from the bank to execute the incorporated projects (8.4 %) are $516/ha and $393/ha, respectively. Furthermore, families’ economic share from potential profit of NTFPs is annually $601 per household. In addition wild pistachio resin has the highest share of the total potential profit of NTFPs and its equal to 51 % of the total of potential profit of NTFPs. Therefore, it is suggested that decisions be made to increase the infrastructure and strengthen the local selling market to enhance the cash income from NTFPs. Forest participatory management practices are suggested to organize and improve traditional use of the forests.     

Fertilizers in agroforestry systems

This review encompasses results of fertilization experiments on several agroforestry systems—alley cropping, perennial shade systems, home gardens—in which fertilizer use is a likely management alternative. Fertilizer response was found to be most common in alley cropping, variable in perennial shade systems, and rarely reported in home gardens. Level of nutrient removal in harvested products is probably the overriding factor in determining fertilizer response; greater accumulation of organic residues, slower growth under shade, and longer periods of nutrient uptake probably also contribute to the relatively smaller fertilizer response of the perennial shade systems and home gardens. Considerable knowledge gaps exist regarding the breakdown of organic residues, and interactions between mineral and organic amendments. Systems based on annual crops (e.g., alley cropping) are likely to be less nutrient-efficient and sustainable than systems based on perennial crops, due to reduced fixation and transfer of N to the crops, the tendency of the trees to compete for and sequester nutrients, relatively high P requirements of the crops, and the high labor cost of tree management. The possible benefits of fertilization of specific components in home gardens, and relative advantages of including low-value tree legumes, high-value shade trees, and fertilization in shaded perennial systems are only beginning to receive research attention.