太湖地区主要水稻土水力特征及其影响因素

通过田间和室内试验研究了太湖地区3种主要水稻土(白土、黄泥土和乌栅土)的水分特征以及影响因素,得出了各种土壤每一土层的容重、质地、有机质、土壤团聚度、土壤结构系数和土壤水分特征曲线,比较了3种主要水稻土类型的土壤基本物理性质和水分特征状况,并根据水分特征曲线得出了这3种土壤的田间持水量、有效水含量和萎蔫系数。结果表明:土壤田间持水量和有效水含量均与容重呈极显著的线性负相关,有效水与土壤粘粒含量也呈显著的线性负相关;而土壤的田间持水量和有效水含量与土壤有机质、结构系数、团聚度呈极显著的线性正相关,萎蔫系数与质地也呈显著的线性正相关。     

Effects of additions of organic matter on the penetration resistance of glacial till for the entire water tension range

Hardsetting soil properties are undesirable in agricultural soils because they hamper crop production by limiting seedling emergence and root growth via increased mechanical soil resistance at low moisture contents. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of additions of organic matter on the penetration resistance of a hardsetting soil for the entire water tension range. Investigations were carried out on Saalian glacial till, which is used as a reclamation substrate in post-lignite-mining reclamation. Proportions of 0%, 1%, 2%, 3% and 4% by mass of organic matter (OM) were used. The remoulded samples were saturated under a constant load of 2.4 kPa to achieve bulk densities equivalent to a soil depth of 15–20 cm via water-induced consolidation. Subsequently, the mixtures were adjusted to water tensions between 10⁰ and 10⁷ hPa and penetrated using a small cone penetrometer. Compared to 0% OM, the addition of 1% OM led to a very small but significant (P < 0.01) increase in the bulk density, while between 1% and 4% OM bulk density was seen to decrease in a linear fashion. At moisture contents greater than field capacity, penetration resistance values were consistent with the observed changes in bulk density, leading to an increase in the samples containing 0–1% OM to critical values for root-growth and a decrease for samples containing 2% and more organic matter reaching to values non-critical for roots. At moisture contents smaller than field capacity, penetration resistance values were inversely related to the bulk density, supporting the concept that the type of organic matter added contributed to soil cohesion. Modeling the relation between water tension and penetration resistance using a sigmoidal equation showed a high consistency between the observed data and the model.     

Soil physical quality of a Brazilian Oxisol under two tillage systems using the least limiting water range approach

Plant growth is directly affected by soil water, soil aeration, and soil resistance to root penetration. The least limiting water range (LLWR) is defined as the range in soil water content within which limitations to plant growth associated with water potential, aeration and soil resistance to root penetration are minimal. The LLWR has not been evaluated in tropical soils. Thus, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the LLWR in a Brazilian clay Oxisol (Typic Hapludox) cropped with maize (Zea mays L. cv. Cargil 701) under no-tillage and conventional tillage. Ninety-six undisturbed soil samples were obtained from maize rows and between rows and used to determine the water retention curve, the soil resistance curve and bulk density. The results demonstrated that LLWR was higher in conventional tillage than in no-tillage and was negatively correlated with bulk density for values above 1.02 g cm⁻³. The range of LLWR variation was 0–0.1184 cm³ cm⁻³ in both systems, with mean values of 0.0785 cm³ cm⁻³ for no-tillage and 0.0964 cm³ cm⁻³ for conventional tillage. Soil resistance to root penetration determined the lower limit of LLWR in 89% of the samples in no-tillage and in 46% of the samples in conventional tillage. Additional evaluations of LLWR are needed under different texture and management conditions in tropical soils.     

Estimation of soil strength properties for critical rooting conditions

Methods to aid in the large-scale testing and characterization of Coastal Plain soils based on their susceptibility to root-limiting strength problems were developed and analyzed. They were basically regression equations modeled after a Taylor series expansion. The equations relate changes of soil strength, bulk density and soil water content between field and “critical rooting conditions”. Once equations wered eveloped from a data set of 426 laboratory samples, critical rooting bulk density was predicted for a separate set of laboratory and field samples. All laboratory samples and appropriate field samples were equilibrated at — 100 kPa soil-water potential. Soils used were sandy Ultisols, which may limit the scope of equations.

In many cases, changes in the water contents were not a significant factor in the prediction of soil strength. This may be a reflection of the limited capabilities of the equations, the uniform equilibration of soil-water potential of the soils, or the fact that the slope of the strength vs. bulk density curve is independent of water content over the range of samples considered. Nevertheless, it does simplify the equations and may suggest that a series of several equations for different soil types would be better than a single equation that requires soil-water content.     

THE RELATION BETWEEN BULK DENSITY, AVAILABLE WATER CAPACITY, AND AIR CAPACITY OF SOILS

The effect of bulk density on moisture content at 50 mb tension in four soils of different textures was studied. The volumetric water content increased linearly with bulk density over a wide range of densities. Depending on texture, a maximum bulk density was reached above which continued compaction decreased the water content. This is shown to be the point at which the air capacity of the soil at this tension approaches zero. Accepting that the gravimetric wilting point depends mainly on texture, the available water capacity varies in a manner similar to the 50 mb water content. If the relationships described are valid in the field, the available water capacity and air capacity may be optimized using cultivation techniques to adjust the bulk density. The available water capacity of coarse-textured droughty soils may be increased by increasing the bulk density provided that the air capacity remains above acceptable lower limits (10–15 per cent). Conversely, the air capacity of compacted soils with large available-water capacities could be increased by reducing the bulk density to a value corresponding to an acceptable available-water capacity. In very compacted soils a decrease in bulk density will benefit both available-water capacity and air capacity.     

Torfeigenschaften und ungesättigte hydraulische Leitfähigkeit von Moorböden

Peat properties and unsaturated hydraulic conductivity of peat soils . Drainage of organic soils is closely connected with water supply of plants by the capillary fringe of the groundwater. Unsaturated flow of water was measured by the double-membrane apparatus described by Vetterlein, which was modified for experiments with undisturbed peat samples. The influence of decomposition, nature of peat, ash content, bulk density (consolidation) and flux direction on unsaturated flow of water in peat soils was determined. The correlation to unsaturated water conductivity decreased in the sequence: decomposition, flux direction, ash content, bulk density. A dependence on bulk density exists only below pF 2.     

Soil strength and crop emergence in direct drilled and ploughed cereal seedbeds in seven field experiments

Cone resistance and vane shear strength were measured in the top 50–100 mm of seven soils. Bulk density and water content were also measured in the same layer by coring. At each site cone resistance and vane shear strength tended to decrease with increasing water content and decreasing bulk density down to 1300 kg m-3, but at lower densities they were not related to bulk density. Cone resistance and vane shear strength tended to decrease with increasing coarseness of texture but also depended on soil structure and organic matter content. Plant populations, mainly spring barley, were reduced in soils with cone resistances and vane shear strengths greater than 2500 kPa and 65 kPa respectively. Such high strengths in undisturbed soils were associated with wheeling during harvesting, were apparently independent of soil type and, at the only site of measurement, apparently decreased during weathering in the subsequent season. In contrast to the cone penetrometer, the vane shear tester has minimal shaft friction in undisturbed soils and is more sensitive to soil differences and less sensitive to water content differences than the penetrometer. It is apparently more suitable for indexing the suitability of undisturbed soils for the penetration of direct drill coulters and for subsequent plant establishment.     

容重对土壤水分蓄持能力影响模拟试验研究

通过人工改变土壤颗粒级配,并设置不同容重水平,测定土壤水分特征参数,研究了容重对土壤水分蓄持能力的定量影响。结果表明:(1)容重对土壤水分特征曲线、比水容量有较大影响,试验土壤各吸力段水分蓄持能力均随容重增大递减,比水容量也随容重增大递减。(2)容重对试验土壤饱和含水量、田间持水量、凋萎系数有较大影响,此3个水分参数均随容重增大递减。饱和含水量与容重呈幂函数负相关关系,田间持水量及凋萎系数均与容重呈指数负相关关系。(3)容重对试验土壤有效水、易效水、迟效水含量有较大影响,此3水分参数均随容重增大递减,分别与容重呈指数、幂函数、对数负相关关系。     

Estimating water retention curves of forest soils from soil texture and bulk density

Forest soils differ significantly from the arable land in their distribution of the soil bulk density and humus content, but the water retention parameters are primarily derived from the data of agricultural soils. Thus, there is a need to relate physical parameters of forest soils with their water retention characteristics and compare them with those of agricultural soils. Using 1850 water retention curves from forest soils, we related the following soil physical parameters to soil texture, bulk density, and C content: air capacity (AC), available water capacity (AWC), and the permanent wilting point (PWP). The ACs of forest soils were significantly higher than those of agricultural soils which were related to the low bulk densities of the forest soils, whereas differences in AWCs were small. Therefore, for a proper evaluation of the water retention curves (WRCs) and the parameters derived from them, further subdivisions of the lowest (< 1.45 g cm^‐3) of the three bulk density classes was undertaken to the wide range of low soil densities in forest soils (giving a total of 5 bulk density classes). In Germany, 31 soil texture classes are used for the estimation of soil physical parameters. Such a detailed classification is not required because of insignificant differences in WRCs for a large number of these classes. Based on cluster analysis of AC, AWC, and PWP parameters, 10 texture collectives were obtained. Using 5 classes of bulk densities, we further calculated the ACs, AWCs, and the PWPs for these 10 classes. Furthermore, “van Genuchten parameters” (θ r, θ s, α, and n) were derived which described the average WRC for each designated class. In a second approach using multiple regression analysis, regression functions for AC, AWC, and PWP and for the van Genuchten parameter were calculated.     

Zum Vergleich von Penetrometermessungen,durchgeführt bei unterschiedlichem Wassergehalt

Penetrometer measurements at different soil water contents With use of a large number of field measurements an empirical relation between soil water content and penetrometer resistance was derived. For this purpose the soils were subdivided with respect to their texture and bulk density. The derived relations enable a comparison of penetrometer values derived at different soil water content.     

A method for predicting soil susceptibility to the compaction of surface layers as a function of water content and bulk density

Identifying the vulnerability of soils to compaction damage is becoming an increasingly important issue when planning and performing farming operations. Soil compaction models are efficient tools for predicting soil compaction due to agricultural field traffic. Most of these models require knowledge of the stress/strain relationship and of mechanical parameters and their variations as a function of different physical properties. Since soil compaction depends on the soil's water content, bulk density and texture, good understanding of the relations between them is essential to define suitable farming strategies according to climatic changes. In this work we propose a new pedotransfer function for 10 representative French soils collected from cultivated fields, a vineyard and forests. We investigate the relationship between soil mechanical properties, easily measurable soil properties, water content and bulk density. Confined compression tests were performed on remoulded soils of a large range of textures at different initial bulk densities and water contents. The use of remolded samples allowed us to examine a wide range of initial conditions with low measurement variability. Good linear regression was obtained between soil precompression stress, the compression index, initial water content, initial bulk density and soil texture. The higher the clay content, the higher the soil's capacity to bear greater stresses at higher initial water contents without severe compaction. Initial water content plays an important role in clayey and loamy soils. In contrast, for sandy soils, mechanical parameters were less dependent on initial water content but more related to initial bulk density. These pedotransfer functions are expected to hold for the soils of tilled surface layers, but further measurements on intact samples are needed to test their validity.     

Modelling Thermal Diffusivity of Differently Textured Soils

A series of models has been proposed for estimating thermal diffusivity of soils at different water contents. Models have been trained on 49 soil samples with the texture range from sands to silty clays. The bulk density of the studied soils varied from 0.86 to 1.82 g/cm³; the organic carbon was between 0.05 and 6.49%; the physical clay ranged from 1 to 76%. The thermal diffusivity of undisturbed soil cores measured by the unsteady-state method varied from 0.78×10^–7 m²/s for silty clay at the water content of 0.142 cm³/cm³ to 10.09 × 10^–7 m²/s for sand at the water content of 0.138 cm³/cm³. Each experimental curve was described by the four-parameter function proposed earlier. Pedotransfer functions were then developed to estimate the parameters of the thermal diffusivity vs. water content function from data on soil texture, bulk density, and organic carbon. Models were tested on 32 samples not included in the training set. The root mean square errors of the best-performing models were 17–38%. The models using texture data performed better than the model using only data on soil bulk density and organic carbon.     

Seasonal differences in tillage draught on a sandy loam soil with long‐term additions of animal manure and mineral fertilizers

Energy requirements for soil tillage are closely linked to soil properties, such as clay, water and soil organic carbon (SOC) contents. Long‐term application of inorganic fertilizer and organic amendments affects SOC content but little is known about seasonal differences in tillage draught requirements of soils subject to contrasting nutrient management regimes. We assessed autumn and spring tillage draught following harvest of early‐sown and timely sown winter wheat grown on a sandy loam in the Askov Long‐Term Experiment on Animal Manure and Mineral Fertilizers. Draught force was related to soil texture, soil water and SOC content, shear strength and bulk density, nutrient management, and yield of the preceding winter wheat. Contents of clay and SOC ranged from 8.9 to 10.6% and from 0.98 to 1.36%, respectively. In the autumn and spring, SOC normalized by clay content explained 38 and 5% of the variation in specific draught, respectively. Specific draught did not differ significantly among individual fertilization treatments. SOC was closely correlated with clay and water contents and bulk density, and with yield of the preceding wheat. Draught force was significantly smaller in the spring than in the autumn. In the autumn when soils were drier (?700 hPa), tillage draught was correlated with several soil characteristics, whereas water content was the dominating parameter in the spring when soils were wetter (?100 hPa). The range of SOC contents observed in this study aligns with that observed in Danish sandy loams under intensive cultivation, and within this range, SOC per se had little effect on draught requirements.     

原状土与装填土热特性的比较

土壤热特性是研究土壤—植物—大气系统中能量传输的必要参数。目前的研究集中在室内装填土柱上热特性与含水率、质地、温度和体积质量(容重)等因素的关系,田间条件下土壤结构对热特性影响的报道很少。该研究通过比较2种质地土壤田间原状土和室内装填土热特性的差异,初步探讨了不同含水率范围内结构形成对土壤热特性的影响。采集田间原状土,在室内利用热脉冲技术测定其热容量、热导率和热扩散率;然后将样品磨碎、过2mm土筛,填装后得到相同体积质量和含水率的装填土壤样品,并测定其热特性。结果表明,装填土和原状土的热容量基本一致;在中等含水率区域(砂壤土:0.07～0.24m3/m3;壤土:0.15～0.31m3/m3),重新装填后砂壤土和壤土的热导率分别降低了9.7%和9.8%。另外,结构形成增加了土壤热扩散率,在中等含水率区域尤其明显;在接近饱和区域,原状土与装填土的热扩散率趋于一致。因此,土壤结构形成对土壤热容量没有显著影响,但提高了中等含水率区域土壤的热导率和热扩散率。     

A method for prediction of soil penetration resistance

A new equation for predicting penetration resistance of soil is presented. The equation contains two main additive terms: the first is a measure of the degree of compactness of the soil and the second gives the contribution of pore water to the soil strength. It is proposed that these terms are applicable to soils of different texture, at different bulk densities and at different water contents. The equation is calibrated and tested using values of penetrometer resistance measured in the field at a range of locations in Poland. Predictions from the equation are compared with predictions from two other published equations. It is shown that the performance of the proposed equation is superior to the other two, at least for the Polish data set used in this work. On the basis of the assumption that the proposed equation is correct, predictions of penetrometer resistance are made using pedotransfer functions to illustrate typical effects of soil texture, bulk density and water content.     

Compaction and penetration resistance of an Alfisol and Entisol and their influence on root growth of maize seedlings

Traffic and tillage induced compaction affect soil physical, chemical and biological properties and processes directly and influences plant root growth indirectly. In a pot experiment with an Entisol and an Alfisol, the effect of 0, 50, 100 and 200 kPa of compactive stress on bulk density, penetration resistance, and on root growth of maize seedlings, at the early stages of development, was studied.

Compaction resulted in a progressive increase in bulk density and penetration resistance for both soils. The Entisol reached a greater bulk density and penetration resistance than the Alfisol. Bulk density or penetration resistance were closely correlated with compactive stress. The correlation between bulk density and penetration resistance was not so close.

Increased bulk density and penetration resistance resulted in a reduction of all the root growth parameters such as number of roots, mean and total root length, rateof root elongation and fresh and dry root mass. Significant linear or curvilinear relationships were found between bulk density or penetration resistance and most of the root growth parameters studied. However, the relationships were improved when relative values (expressed as fractions of the controls) of bulk density or penetration resistance and of any one of the root growth parameters were considered. Roots grown in more compact soil had a smaller ratio of fresh to dry mass.     

Kinetics of nitrification under upland and flooded soils of varying texture

Abstract

Higher rates of nitrification often reported in fine than in coarse textured soils may not be a direct effect of soil texture because in most of the earlier studies, soil water content has been usually expressed as gravimetric, volumetric or soil's water‐holding capacity without consideration of differences in density/ porosity for soils of varying texture. The same water content in texturally different soils could provide very different conditions of soil aeration and associated nitrifying activity. Effects of soil texture on nitrification was studied by incubating three semiarid subtropical soils having sandy loam, loam, and silty clay textures at 35°C for 30 days using water‐filled pore space (WFPS) as the criterion of soil aeration. Upland or aerobic soil conditions, simulated by incubating soil at 60% WFPS, exhibited very fast nitrification of added fertilizer nitrogen (N) and most of the applied 100 mg of ammonium‐nitrogen (NH₄+‐N/kg soil) was nitrified within 10 days of incubation in all three soils irrespective of the differences in texture. Under flooded soil conditions (120% WFPS), nitrification was slow and only 84 to 92% of the applied NH₄+‐N was nitrified even after 30 days. Nitrification could be described by first‐order kinetics for both the upland and flooded moisture regimes, thus nitrification rate depended upon NH₄+ concentration. At similar gravimetric water contents, rates of nitrification differed greatly in soils of varying texture, but when varying water‐holding capacity and bulk density were accounted for using WFPS, all the soils behaved similarly at 60% WFPS. Under impeded aeration (flooded conditions), however, substantial differences were observed in nitrification in soils of varying texture, the largest in fine‐textured Chamror silty clay followed by Habowal loam and the smallest in Tolewal sandy loam soil. These results illustrate the utility of WFPS, compared with soil water content, and its reliability as an indicator of aeration dependent nitrification for soils of varying texture.     

黄土高原藓结皮覆盖土壤的穿透阻力特征及其影响因素

生物结皮的发育显著地影响并改变了表层土壤的理化性状,从而影响土壤穿透阻力.为探明生物结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响,针对黄土高原风沙土和黄绵土两种典型土壤,利用高精度土壤贯入仪测定并比较了不同含水量下藓结皮土壤和无结皮土壤的穿透阻力差异,定量分析了藓结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响及其与土壤性质(含水量、容重和有机质含量以及颗粒...     

Critical limits of the degree of compactness and soil penetration resistance for the soybean crop in N Brazil

In agricultural fields soil compaction is a major cause of physical degradation. Degree of compactness (DC) is a useful parameter for characterizing compaction and the response of crops for different soils. The objectives of this study were: (1) to identify the critical DC and PR values for soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] using plant growth variables and (2) to verify the relationship between DC and PR, and assess which parameter is recommended for the evaluation of soil compaction. The study was conducted in a greenhouse in a completely randomized factorial design of 4 textures × 5 compaction levels for sandy loam and sandy clay loam soils, and 3 compaction levels for the clayey and very clayey soils. Soil samples were collected from the surface of a Xantic Kandiudox from the NE region of the State of Pará, Brazil. The DC was calculated from the maximum bulk density obtained by the Proctor test, and the PR curve was determined in undisturbed samples equilibrated in different matric potentials. The growth and development of the soybean was favored in the DC range of 80 to 85%, regardless of soil texture. The critical degree of compactness for the growth of soybean was around 98% regardless of soil texture, while the critical values for penetration resistance at field capacity varied according to soil texture and bulk density and were 28.2, 5.6, 3.5, and 5.2 MPa for the sandy loam, sand clay loam, clayey and very clayey soils, respectively. The root length was the plant growth variable most susceptible to soil compaction. Change in soil penetration resistance was poorly related with change in degree of compactness showing that one parameter cannot be replaced by the other. Because PR is quickly determined in field and have a direct relationship with plant growth, for the soils evaluated in this study we recommend the use of soil PR to assess the state of soil compaction.     

Spatial variability of Southeastern U.S. Coastal Plain soil physical properties: Implications for site-specific management

Our objectives were to describe the field-scale horizontal and vertical spatial variability of soil physical properties and their relations to soil map units in typical southeastern USA coastal plain soils, and to identify the soil properties, or clusters of properties, that defined most of the variability within the field. The study was conducted on a 12-ha field in Kinston, NC. A 1:2400 scale soil survey had delineated three soil map units in the field: Norfolk loamy sand, Goldsboro loamy sand, and Lynchburg sandy loam. These are representative of millions of hectares of farmland in the Coastal Plain of the southeastern USA. Sixty soil cores were taken to ∼ 1-m depth, sectioned into five depth increments, and analyzed for: soil texture as percentage sand, silt, and clay; soil water content (SWC) at − 33 and − 1500 kPa; plant available water (PAW); saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat); bulk density (BD); and total porosity. A penetrometer was used to measure cone index (CI) at each sample location. Variography, two mixed-model analyses, and principal components analysis were conducted. Results indicated that soil physical properties could be divided into two categories. The first category described the majority of the within-field variability and included particle size distribution (soil texture), SWC, PAW, and CI. These characteristics showed horizontal spatial structure that was captured by soil map units and especially by the division between sandy loams and finer loam soils. The second class of variables included BD, total porosity, and Ksat. These properties were not spatially correlated in the field and were unrelated to soil map unit. These findings support the hypothesis that coastal plain soil map units that delineate boundaries between sandy loams versus finer loam soils may be useful for developing management zones for site-specific crop management.