Serological Evidence for Borrelia burgdorferi Infection Associated with Clinical Signs in Dairy Cattle in Slovakia

In the course of epizootological research on Lyme borreliosis in domestic and farm animals, the serological evidence for the occurrence of this zoonosis in cattle was screened. An ELISA showed that 25.2% of cattle from seven geographical areas in Slovakia were positive for anti-Borrelia IgG antibodies. In particular localities, the seroprevalence ranged from 0.6% to 34.3%. Of 33 cases with clinical signs, 20 ELISA-positive samples were also confirmed in Western blots. The most frequent clinical signs were lameness and swollen joints, but most of the cases were asymptomatic. The occurrence of Borrelia burgdorferi antibodies and suspected clinical signs in cattle of Slovak regions indicates that veterinarians should pay attention to this disease in their clinical practice and include it within the differential diagnosis.     

Suspected Lyme borreliosis in sheep.

Two cases of suspected Lyme borreliosis in lambs are described. The clinical signs observed resemble those described for Lyme borreliosis in dogs and horses. The lambs were approximately six months old and came from two different flocks in a district heavily infested with Ixodes ricinus ticks. The lambs had pronounced lameness in one leg, generally bad condition and poor appetite. They had high serum levels of IgG antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi when tested in an ELISA. The other lambs in the flocks were negative to B burgdorferi antibodies. Attempts were made to isolate spirochaetes from one of the lambs, but were unsuccessful.     

Lyme borreliosis in cattle and horses: a review of the literature.

A complete search of the literature concerning Lyme borreliosis as it relates to horses and cattle was done. The epidemiology, pathogenesis, immunological response to the disease, diagnosis and treatment are discussed. A review of clinical cases in horses and cattle is presented. Clinical signs of Lyme borreliosis in horses include: chronic weight loss, sporadic lameness, laminitis, low grade fever, swollen joints, muscle tenderness, and anterior uveitis. In addition to those clinical signs, neurological signs such as depression, behavioral changes, dysphagia, head tilt and encephalitis can be seen in chronic cases. Borreliosis occurs in cattle, usually as a herd problem. In acute Lyme borreliosis, cattle often will show a fever, stiffness, swollen joints, and decreased milk production. Chronic weight loss, laminitis and abortion are also possible outcomes of borreliosis in cattle. Diagnosis of clinical Lyme borreliosis is difficult and depends upon recognition of clinical signs, a history of possible exposure, and identification of the spirochete in the affected animal. Since the spirochete is very difficult to culture, confirmation of B. burgdorferi infection often relies on serologic testing. Subclinical seropositive animals do occur, thus confusing the diagnosis. An approach to treatment of cattle and horses with Lyme borreliosis is outlined.     

Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in tissues from dogs with presumptive Lyme borreliosis

OBJECTIVE: To develop a quantitative PCR assay for detection of Borrelia burgdorferi DNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues; compare results of this assay with results of immunohistochemical staining of tissues from seropositive dogs; and determine whether B burgdorferi DNA could be detected in renal tissues from dogs with presumptive Lyme nephritis. DESIGN: Cohort study. SAMPLE POPULATION: Archived tissue samples from 58 dogs. PROCEDURES: A quantitative PCR assay was performed on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections from the dogs. Results were compared with results of immunohistochemical staining, B burgdorferi serostatus, clinical signs, and necropsy findings. RESULTS: 38 dogs were classified as having positive or equivocal results for Lyme borreliosis, and 20 were classified as having negative results on the basis of clinical signs, serologic findings, and pathologic abnormalities. Borrelia burgdorferi DNA was amplified from tissue samples from only 4 (7%) dogs, all of which had been classified as having positive or equivocal results for Lyme borreliosis and had signs of presumptive Lyme nephritis. Results of PCR assays of renal tissue were positive for only 1 dog, and there was no agreement between results of immunohistochemical staining (ie, detection of B burgdorferi antigen) and results of the PCR assay (ie, detection of B burgdorferi DNA) for renal tissues. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results indicated that detection of B burgdorferi DNA in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues is feasible, but that intact B burgdorferi DNA is rarely found in tissues from naturally infected dogs, even tissues from dogs with presumptive Lyme borreliosis. Further, findings support the contention that Lyme nephritis may be a sterile, immune complex disease.     

An Update on the Serodiagnosis of Canine Lyme Borreliosis

The first report of canine Lyme borreliosis was published in 1984, and since that time there have been numerous reports. Clinical manifestations have varied, and serology is often used to make the diagnosis. This review is designed to inform veterinary clinicians about the current serologic tests and their limitations. In endemic areas, the fact that up to 50% of the canine population can be asymptomatic, yet seropositive, suggests that positive antibody titers do not necessarily indicate the presence of disease. Instead, the presence of a positive antibody titer should be considered evidence of exposure to the agent. Many dogs apparently are exposed to the agent of Lyme borreliosis but do not come down with the disease. Immunoblots are not able to distinguish between infection versus exposure. Newer diagnostic tests, such as antigen assays, are being evaluated. However, the fact that spirochetes have been isolated from 8% of asymptomatic dogs living in an endemic area is evidence that these tests will also need to be cautiously interpreted. Our inability to characterize the relationship between clinical signs and serology has hampered our understanding of canine Lyme disease. Presently, the diagnosis should be one of exclusion. A diagnosis of Lyme borreliosis should be considered confirmed only when other diseases are completely ruled out.     

Diagnosis of Borrelia‐associated uveitis in two horses

Borrelia burgdorferi, the etiologic agent of Lyme disease is a tick born spirochetal infection. Clinical signs of Lyme borreliosis are uncommon in horses, but when present they are often vague and nonspecific. In horses, Lyme borreliosis has been implicated in musculoskeletal, neurological, reproductive, and ocular disorders, including uveitis, but definitive diagnosis can be challenging as the causative agent is rarely isolated and serologic tests can be unreliable and do not confirm active disease. Here, we report two cases of equine uveitis associated with B. burgdorferi based on the identification of spirochetes within ocular fluids and confirmed with PCR testing. The two cases illustrate some of the challenges encountered in the recognition and diagnosis of equine Lyme borreliosis. Although only one of many possible causes of equine uveitis, Lyme disease should be considered a differential diagnosis, especially in endemic areas. Given the possibility for false negative results of serum tests during uveitis associated with B. burgdorferi and the failure of such tests to confirm active infection, a combination of cytologic assessment, antibody, and/or PCR testing of ocular fluids may be worthwhile if the clinical suspicion for Lyme uveitis is high.     

Borrelia burgdorferi infections with special reference to horses. A review

This review discusses the literature on B. burgdorferi infections in view of the rising incidence of this infection in general and the increasing concerns of horse owners and equine practitioners. Lyme disease, the clinical expression of Borrelia infections in man is an important health problem. The geographic distribution of B. burgdorferi infections in equidae should resemble that of human cases because the vector tick involved, Ixodes ricinus, feeds on both species and, indeed, the infection has been established many times in horses. However, a definite diagnosis of the disease "Lyme borreliosis" in human beings as well as in horses and other animals is often difficult to accomplish. Although a broad spectrum of clinical signs has been attributed to B. burgdorferi infections in horses, indisputable cases of equine Lyme borreliosis are extremely rare so far, if they exist at all.     

Borrelia burgdorferi infections with special reference to horses. A review

Summary This review discusses the literature on B. burgdorferi infections in view of the rising incidence of this infection in general and the increasing concerns of horse owners and equine practitioners. Lyme disease, the clinical expression of Borrelia infections in man is an important health problem. The geographic distribution of B. burgdorferi infections in equidae should resemble that of human cases because the vector tick involved, Ixodes ricinus, feeds on both species and, indeed, the infection has been established many times in horses. However, a definite diagnosis of the disease "Lyme borreliosis" in human beings as well as in horses and other animals is often difficult to accomplish. Although a broad spectrum of clinical signs has been attributed to B. burgdorferi infections in horses, indisputable cases of equine Lyme borreliosis are extremely rare so far, if they exist at all.     

Examination of Koch's postulates for Borrelia burgdorferi as the causative agent of limb/joint dysfunction in dogs with borreliosis.

Borrelia burgdorferi has been implicated as the causative agent of borreliosis in dogs, which is characteristically a limb/joint disorder, but can be associated with multiple-organ dysfunction. Attempts to reproduce this disease by inoculating dogs with B burgdorferi have not been successful. In the study of this report, B burgdorferi from Ixodes dammini ticks was used to induce signs of limb/joint dysfunction, fever, anorexia, depression, and systemic infection in dogs. A pure culture of this bacterium from the blood of an infected dog has been used to fulfill Koch's postulates for B burgdorferi as the causative agent of limb/joint dysfunction associated with borreliosis in dogs.     

Experimental induction of chronic borreliosis in adult dogs exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi-infected ticks and treated with dexamethasone.

OBJECTIVE: To develop a method to experimentally induce Borrelia burgdorferi infection in young adult dogs. ANIMALS: 22 healthy Beagles. PROCEDURE: All dogs were verified to be free of borreliosis. Twenty 6-month-old dogs were exposed to Borrelia burgdorferi-infected adult ticks and treated with dexamethasone for 5 consecutive days. Two dogs not exposed to ticks were treated with dexamethasone and served as negative-control dogs. Clinical signs, results of microbial culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing, immunologic responses, and gross and histologic lesions were evaluated 9 months after tick exposure. RESULTS: Predominant clinical signs were episodic pyrexia and lameness in 12 of 20 dogs. Infection with B burgdorferi was detected in microbial cultures of skin biopsy specimens and various tissues obtained during necropsy in 19 of 20 dogs and in all 20 dogs by use of a PCR assay. All 20 exposed dogs seroconverted and developed chronic nonsuppurative arthritis. Three dogs also developed mild focal meningitis, 1 dog developed mild focal encephalitis, and 18 dogs developed perineuritis or rare neuritis. Control dogs were seronegative, had negative results for microbial culture and PCR testing, and did not develop lesions. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Use of this technique successfully induced borreliosis in young dogs. Dogs with experimentally induced borreliosis may be useful in evaluating vaccines, chemotherapeutic agents, and the pathogenesis of borreliosis-induced arthritis.     

莱姆病的现状及防治

莱姆病(lymedisease)亦称莱姆疏螺旋体病(lymeborreliosis),是20世纪70年代发现的以蜱作为传播媒介,由伯氏疏螺旋体(borreliaburgdorferi)感染所致的人畜共患传染病,其特征有慢性游走性红斑(ECA),同时伴随发热多汗、头疼、颈强直、肌疼、关节疼等症状。通过对该病的现状的分析,提出防治措施,开展有关疫苗的研究。     

Canine borreliosis: a laboratory diagnostic trial

The aim of this study was to investigate samples from dogs suggestive of active canine borreliosis (group A) by culture and PCR and the detection of antibodies against Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in order to confirm a presumptive clinical diagnosis of canine borreliosis by laboratory results. Criteria for such a diagnosis were: history of tick exposure, lameness, neurological signs, nephropathy, lethargy, anorexia, and fever. A total of 302 samples comprising EDTA blood, urine, synovial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, and tissue (skin, synovial membrane, kidney) from 98 dogs (26 with arthritis, 46 with neurological signs, 21 with nephropathy, 5 with non-specific symptoms) were collected and examined. Moreover, 55 healthy dogs (group B) and 236 dogs with symptoms or injuries unlikely to be associated with borreliosis (group C) were included in this study. Blood serum samples collected from all individuals (n=389) were analysed by ELISA. Twenty-one (21%) out of 98 dogs from group A, 4 (7%) out of 55 from group B and 15 (6%) out of 236 dogs from group C were positive for antibodies against B. burgdorferi sensu lato. The seroprevalences between groups A, B and C differed significantly. None of the corresponding samples investigated by PCR and culture were positive for spirochetal DNA or viable spirochetes. Borrelia afzelii was grown from one EDTA-blood sample but the corresponding blood serum sample remained antibody-negative. Consequently, the etiologic role of B. afzelii in this case is unclear. In approximately 40% of the presumptive canine borreliosis cases, other lesions have been found to be responsible for clinical signs. This study affirms that a definitive diagnosis of canine borreliosis cannot be made by clinical symptoms and serology based on a single consultation. Moreover, this study clearly revealed that the diagnostic sensitivity is enhanced by a thorough consideration and exclusion of other diseases.     

Canine haemobartonellosis, canine hepatozoonosis, and feline cytauxzoonosis

Although Lyme borreliosis (Lyme disease), ehrlichiosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and babesiosis occur more frequently in dogs or cats, from a clinical standpoint, other tick-borne diseases such as canine haemobartonellosis, canine hepatozoonosis, and feline cytauxzoonosis are just as important to recognize. Information concerning these less common tick-borne diseases are discussed, including their causative agents and their relationship to disease pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.     

Serodiagnosis of Lyme disease in UK dogs

Lyme disease is a chronic, multisystemic, inflammatory disorder of man and animals associated with infection by the tick-borne spirochaete, Borrelia burgdorferi. Lyme disease was recently reported for the first time in a dog in the UK (May and others 1990). Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we have performed a serological survey to investigate the prevalence of antibodies to B burgdorferi in UK dogs. The survey has shown that dogs from many areas in the UK have serum antibodies to B burgdorferi, that the presence of serum antibodies is associated with known exposure to ticks and that some dogs seropositive for B burgdorferi have clinical signs consistent with Lyme disease. High levels of serum anti-Borrelia antibodies are not diagnostic for canine Lyme disease, but, in association with appropriate clinical signs, they help to confirm the diagnosis in suspected cases.     

Diagnostic aspects of Borrelia-infections in dogs

This paper discusses the problem of diagnosing borreliosis (Lyme disease) in dogs. A prospective cohort study in the Kempen district, a known Borrelia focus in The Netherlands, showed that dogs with the presumptive symptoms of borreliosis, episodic malaise and lameness, had significantly higher and longer lasting anti-Borrelia IgG titers than asymptomatic dogs. A small part of these dogs also had antibodies directed against the IR6 (C6) antigen which indicates persistent active Borrelia infection. A few typical case histories are presented. Dogs with episodic malaise and lameness with persistent high IgG titers are suspect of suffering from borreliosis. IR6 antibodies make this diagnosis likely. Initially, such patients should be treated with doxycyclin (10 mg/kg 1dd) for 10 days. If the symptoms recurr within a few months, a longer treatment (eg 6 weeks) should be considered. Bernese mountain dogs were strongly over-represented among the borreliosis patients in the cohort study and most high titered samples among those submitted for--diagnostic--serology appear to come from this breed, which suggests that these dogs have difficulties with clearing this tick-borne infection.     

Arthropoda as zoonoses and their implications.

Some aspects of changing patterns of arthropodal infections and arthropod-borne diseases in Mediterranean areas are briefly discussed. Selected examples are given, with particular emphasis on the phenomenon of the synanthropic flea Ctenocephalides felis felis and on health problems caused by human infections with Argas reflexus, the common tick of urban pigeons in Europe. Finally, the risk of the emergence of Lyme borreliosis (Borrelia burgdorferi) is considered in relation to the increasing spread of environmental infestation with ticks, mainly Ixodes ricinus, an efficacious vector for the spirochaete.     

Biology of ticks

Ticks are an ancient group of obligate bloodsucking ectoparasites that has evolved over millions of years. Two general types of ticks are evident today: argasid or soft ticks, and ixodid or hard ticks. Each lineage exhibits distinct patterns of host coevolution and preference. However, about 10% of the approximately 850 species are of medical importance because of their indiscriminate host selection and catholic feeding behavior. As a result, a number of diseases have begun to emerge in the temperate zones, including Lyme borreliosis and several others putatively associated with ticks. Ticks may serve as both pathogens and disease vectors. Because of the unique physiology of the salivary glands and the contents in tick saliva of toxins, feeding alone may cause disease. Ticks also transmit a number of different types of pathogens (viruses, rickettsiae, spirochetes and bacteria, fungi, protozoa, filarial nematodes) and even exceed mosquitoes in this regard. Abatement and control of ticks emphasizes a broad approach because of the differing types of habitats in which pest species may be found. The use of repellents and acaricides as well as cultural and management practices are of primary importance. Other approaches (ivermectin) may be beneficial; with the advent of molecular genetics and its usefulness in immunology, the development of tick vaccines for common pest species appears promising.     

Serologic confirmation of Ehrlichia equi and Borrelia burgdorferi infections in horses from the northeastern United States

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether horses living in tick-infested areas of northeastern United States with clinical signs of borreliosis or granulocytic ehrlichiosis had detectable serum antibodies to both Borrelia burgdorferi and Ehrlichia equi. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: Serum samples from 51 clinically normal horses, 14 horses with clinical signs of borreliosis, and 17 horses with clinical signs of granulocytic ehrlichiosis. PROCEDURE: Serum B burgdorferi or E equi antibodies were measured by use of an ELISA, immunoblot analysis, or indirect fluorescent antibody (IFA) staining. RESULTS: Of the 82 serum samples tested, 37 (45.1%) and 13 (15.9%) had detectable antibodies to B burgdorferi or E equi, respectively. Test results indicated that 12 horses had been exposed to both agents, 11 of these horses had granulocytic ehrlichiosis. The ELISA regularly detected antibodies to the following recombinant protein (p) antigens of B burgdorferi: p29, p37, p39, and p41-G. The use of immunoblot analysis confirmed ELISA results by indicating antibody reactivities to antigens of whole-cell B burgdorferi having molecular masses of predominantly 31, 34, 37, 39, 41, 58, and 93 kd. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Horses living in areas where ticks (Ixodes scapularis) abound are sometimes exposed to multiple pathogens. Analyses for specific recombinant borrelial antibodies using an ELISA can help separate horses with borreliosis from those with granulocytic ehrlichiosis, even when antibodies to both etiologic agents are detected in serum samples. Analysis using immunoblots is sensitive, and along with ELISA or IFA procedures, is suitable for confirming a clinical diagnosis of each disease.     

基于Pubmed数据库检索的人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究现状与趋势分析

目的 获得全球范围内人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究现状和热点变化趋势信息,为我国人兽共患病的防控提供参考。方法 利用COOC 12.6和Citespace 5.8 R1软件对Pubmed数据库中的人兽共患病及其病原微生物相关的关键词进行了频次统计、共现分析、聚类分析、时间线分析和突现词分析。结果 根据Pubmed数据库中 2001—2021年关键词频次统计和共现分析结果,国际关注度较高的人兽共患病及其病原微生物有以下3类:第1类为常见的人兽共患病病原,包括布鲁菌（Brucella）、戊型肝炎病毒（hepatitis E virus）、链球菌（Streptococcus）、大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli）和沙门菌（Salmonella）等,需要持续关注;第2类为近些年在国际上被广泛关注的人兽共患病病原,如新型冠状病毒（SARS-CoV-2）和甲型流感病毒（influenza A virus）等,需要更为深入研究,以尽早控制这些病原的扩散;第3类为在国外特定地区曾大规模出现的人兽共患病,如Q热（Q fever）和中东呼吸综合征（middle east respiratory syndrome,MERS）等,应当重点关注其输入性风险,避免这些疾病在我国暴发。除疾病和病原微生物外,与检测和诊断相关的关键词,如系统发育（phylogeny）和聚合酶链式反应（PCR）等关键词的关注度也较高。聚类分析生成了10个聚类,蜱媒传染病大类提示蜱虫在人兽共患病传播中的作用。时间线和突现词分析结果显示,在病原微生物中,对甲型流感病毒以及新型冠状病毒等的关注度还在逐渐增加。同时,病原微生物检测技术正在从特定序列检测向全基因组学检测技术发展,这些领域极有可能是今后的研究方向和趋势。结论 结果提示,人们对人兽共患病及其病原微生物研究的关注度越来越高,人兽共患病病原微生物检测技术正在发生更新和迭代。我国应重点关注甲型流感以及新型冠状病毒肺炎等疾病的防控,并适当关注蜱媒传染病。这些信息的获取可为我国的人兽共患病的防控提供参考。