United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service research on biological control of arthropods

During 1999-2001, ARS scientists published over 100 papers on more than 30 species of insect pest and 60 species of predator and parasitoid. These papers address issues crucial to the three strategies of biological control: conservation, augmentation and introduction. Conservation biological control includes both conserving extant populations of natural enemies by using relatively non-toxic pesticides and increasing the abundance of natural enemies in crops by providing or improving refuges for population growth and dispersal into crops. ARS scientists have been very active in determining the effects of pesticides on beneficial arthropods and in studying movement of natural enemies from refuges into crops. Augmentation involves repeated releases of natural enemies in the field, which can be inoculative or inundative. Inoculative releases are used to initiate self-propagating populations at times or in places where they would be slow to colonize. ARS scientists have studied augmentative biological control of a variety of pest insects. The targets are mostly pests in annual crops or other ephemeral habitats, where self-reproducing populations of natural enemies are not sufficiently abundant early enough to keep pest populations in check. ARS research in augmentative biological control centers on methods for rearing large numbers of healthy, effective natural enemies and for releasing them where and when they are needed at a cost less than the value of the reduction in damage to the crop. ARS scientists have researched various aspects of introductions of exotic biological control agents against a diversity of pest insects. The major issues in biological control introductions are accurate identification and adequate systematics of both natural enemies and target pests, exploration for natural enemies, predicting the success of candidates for introduction and the likelihood of non-target impacts, quarantine and rearing methods, and post-introduction evaluation of establishment, control and non-target impacts. ARS scientists have published research on several general issues in biological control. Among the most important are the mechanisms affecting mate- and host-finding and host specificity.     

Review: classical biological control of invasive stink bugs with egg parasitoids – what does success look like?

Although the enemy release hypothesis forms the theoretical basis for classical (=importation) biological control of invasive pests, its core assumptions are not always examined. This could contribute to unrealistic expectations for some biological control programs. In this paper we examine the assumptions that: (i) enemy release has contributed to the invasive nature of four exotic pentatomids in North America; and (ii) classical biological control with egg parasitoids has been or will be successful in reducing populations of these pests below economically significant levels. First, we review the history of biological control programs against invasive stink bugs to highlight the variable and controversial levels of success of introducing egg parasitoids against stink bugs. Then, we use simple stage‐structured matrix models to demonstrate that it may be easy to overestimate the contribution of egg parasitism alone to a reduction in stink bug population growth. Finally, we discuss what realistic expectations might be for success of biological control against invasive stink bugs using egg parasitoids in the context of integrated pest management programs. © 2020 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada Pest Management Science © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry     

Impact of cold storage on the performance of entomophagous insects: an overview

Mass rearing for commercial production of high quality beneficial insects is considered as an important tool for biological control programmes worldwide, especially those based on augmentative releases. Low temperature storage is a valuable method for increasing the shelf life of entomophagous insects. Insect predators and parasitoids are used extensively in biological control programmes and, because of this, studies on cold storage started over 90 years ago. The ability to store reared biocontrol agents at low temperatures for certain duration provides an opportunity to accumulate or stockpile sufficient number of entomophagous insects for field release at proper weather conditions and make them available during high demand periods to the concerned farmers. Cold stored natural enemies can be synchronously released in the fields during critical stages of pest outbreaks. Cold storage also helps to keep viable stock of natural enemies when not needed and to minimize laboratory operations by prolonging their survival and delaying eclosion. Cold storage tolerance is highly plastic trait influenced by a range of biotic and abiotic factors experienced before, during and after cold exposure. These factors ultimately affect the development, longevity, fecundity, parasitization, sex-ratio and other fitness parameters along with morphology, behaviour and physiology of entomophagous insects. For the successful implementation of a cold storage project, knowledge of these diverse factors that cause storage and post-storage effects is essential. The potential of cold storage protocols in improving mass rearing and commercial production of bioagents is thus reviewed to access the strategies, innovations, techniques, devices and wisdom involved in the process of cold storage of entomophagous insects worldwide.     

Contribution of Biological Control to Integrated Pest Management of Tephritid Fruit Flies in the Tropics and Subtropics

The biological control of pest tephritid flies using parasitoids has been successful in relatively few subtropical and tropical regions. The best documented successes were in Hawaii and Florida, USA, Fiji and southern Europe. There were relatively limited successes in Australia, Costa Rica and Mexico. With the accidental establishment of new pest tephritids, such as Bactrocera latifrons (Hendel) in Hawaii or Bactrocera papayae Drew and Hancock in Australia, foreign exploration for new parasitoids is essential. A renewal of interest in classical biological control has recently occurred, although not at the same level as in the 1940s and 1950s. New parasitoid species are currently being obtained for several tephritids, such as Ceratitis capitata (Weidemann), B. latifrons and Anastrepha suspensa (Loew). The advances in mass rearing and quality control technology for parasitoids has enabled researchers to perform large-scale field testing of these parasitoids to determine the potential of augmentative releases. Numerous studies on the augmentative release of parasitoids have been done. Historically, the larval—pupal parasitoid Diachasmimorpha longicaudata (Ashmead) has been the most frequently studied parasitoid, due to the ease of rearing this species. However, recent successes in rearing other species with different biologies, e.g. the egg—pupal parasitoid Biosteres arisanus (Sonan), the gregarious eulophid, Tetrastichus giffardianus (Silvestri) and the pupal parasitoid, Coptera sp., will enable researchers to broaden the repertoire of parasitoid species for the future. Both successes and failures in augmentative releases have occurred. Without knowledge of the behavioural ecology of parasitoids, the reasons for success or failure can only be surmised. Recent research on the dispersal and host habitat finding of tephritid parasitoids will provide insights into improving augmentation and conservation strategies. The integrated pest management (IPM) of tephritid flies in the tropics has been less well-developed than research and programmes for tephritids in temperate zones. Significant emphasis is now being placed on the development of quarantine treatment methods that are environmentally sound; thus IPM will take a larger role. Several existing pest management strategies are reviewed which show the potential for compatibility with the activities of tephritid parasitoids. These include trap cropping, insecticides with selective toxicity to the target pests, mass trapping with parapheromones, the sterile insect technique and field sanitation.     

我国农业害虫天敌昆虫利用三十年回顾(下篇)

本文参阅了从1985-2014近30年有关我国农业害虫天敌昆虫利用发表的文献,尤其是发表在中国生物防治学报的文章。对天敌资源的调查与分类、优势天敌的人工繁殖与释放、与繁殖和释放相关的基础研究、成功的天敌昆虫引进、生物防治技术应用策略等方面的研究与应用进展进行了简要回顾。期望此文能使读者了解近30年来我国生防前辈所作出的贡献,和后辈继往开来的创新成就;认识农业害虫天敌昆虫在我国农林业生产曾发挥的作用。由于此文篇幅较长,分上、下两篇发表。天敌资源的调查与分类、优势天敌的人工繁殖与释放归为上篇,与繁殖和释放相关的基础研究、成功的天敌昆虫引进、生物防治技术应用策略研究归为下篇。     

USDA pest risk assessment of biological control organisms1

Today, as managers of plant pest control programs seek more and more alternatives to chemical pesticides, the demand for biological control organisms in the USA has increased significantly in volume and variety. There is a corresponding increase in the numbers of permit requests for biological control agents from foreign sources. Environmentalists, Federal and State plant regulatory agencies in the USA are concerned over the long-term effects of these ‘beneficials’ on the target hosts, non-target organisms, codependency of flora and fauna, and on the general environment. Within the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of USDA, Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) protects US agriculture from the introduction and dispersal of harmful plant pests. It does this with the help of a network of Plant Quarantine Officers. PPQ strongly supports biological control strategies and the importation of more effective agents by accommodating the needs of agribusiness under appropriate safeguards. Although most biological control organisms are not plant pests, certain precautions are in order prior to release since shipments may contain unwanted pests, other contaminants and prohibited plant material.     

AUTOMATION IN INSECT REARING-A KEYTO THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPETITIVEAUGMENTATIVE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

AugmentahvebiologicalconbolinvolvesthereleaseofnatUralendriesWhentoofewarepresenttocontrolaPeSteffeCtively.ItreliesontheabilitytoproducempnuInbers(i.e.hillions,tril-lions,etc.)ofthenatUndenemy.WhenthePIDductionofthesenatuIalenetheesmpireslmpmtSofmanallabor,thecostforsuchapro~isprohibitive,anditisnotabletocomPetewiththecostofothercontrDlmeth0ds-OnewaytoreduceIhecostSofinsectpnduchonistoaut0-.Ths~arepmtedinthe"MassRearing0fAn~Bi0I0gicalConedAgnt8"SyrnpeiumattheIntemationalConfer-aredI…     

天敌昆虫东亚小花蝽研究进展与展望

东亚小花蝽Orius sauteri是一种应用价值较高的捕食性天敌，因其具有分布范围广、捕食能力强等优点，在农林害虫生物防治中发挥着越来越重要的作用。该文综合分析国内外近几十年东亚小花蝽的研究进展，主要从其形态特征、生活史、环境适应性、捕食能力、人工饲养及应用等方面进行综述，并对其应用前景和进一步的研究方向进行展望，以期为东亚小花蝽的规模繁育和释放应用提供依据。     

Factors in the Success and Failure of Microbial Controlagents for Soil Dwelling Pests

The soil, being rich in microbes, should be an ideal environment in which to practise microbial control of insect pests, but relatively few organisms have been developed into successful microbial control agents for soil pests. Difficulty arises in implementation of microbial control, as the soil is a highly complex, competitive environment where survival of applied microbes is by no means assured. In addition, soil dwelling pests appear to show a high level of resistance to broad spectrum pathogens and microbial toxins. However, some significant successes have been achieved with bacteria, fungi and nematodes for control of a range of soil inhabiting pest species. The successful microbial controls are based on highly specific microbial/insect interactions where co-evolved pathogens can overcome the host's defences. These agents also have the ability to persist in the soil, either through the inherent stability of the organism or from recycling through the host population. While strain selection for high levels of pathogenicity and environmental competence is the essential first step in microbial control of soil dwelling pests, it must be followed by development of efficient production systems and quality control measures to ensure application of standardised, high quality products. Success in microbial control of soil dwelling pests depends on an appropriate combination of these factors, with failure likely to occur if any one of these essential components is overlooked.     

害虫生物防治综合效益评价方法

害虫生物防治效果的评价方法通常采用化学防治效果的计算方法,一般仅体现短期内对目标害虫的致死作用结果,而忽略了天敌在自然界数量增殖后对害虫种群数量的长期而持续的控制效果,以及在保护生态环境、保护生物多样性等方面的评价.判断害虫生物防治计划是否获得成功,目前缺乏广泛认同的评价方法.本文对害虫生物防治效果的评价方法进行了梳理...     

我国农业害虫天敌昆虫利用三十年回顾(上篇)

本文参阅了从1985-2014近30年有关我国农业害虫天敌昆虫利用发表的文献,尤其是发表在中国生物防治学报的文章。从天敌资源的调查与分类、优势天敌的人工繁殖与释放、与繁殖和释放相关的基础研究、成功的天敌昆虫引进、生物防治技术应用策略等方面的研究与应用进展进行了简要回顾。期望此文能使读者了解近30年来我国生防前辈所作出的贡献,和后辈继往开来的创新成就;认识农业害虫天敌昆虫在我国农林业生产曾发挥的作用。由于此文篇幅较长,分上、下两篇发表。天敌资源的调查与分类、优势天敌的人工繁殖与释放归为上篇,与繁殖和释放相关的基础研究、成功的天敌昆虫引进、生物防治技术应用策略研究归为下篇。     

Tree fruit IPM programs in the western United States: the challenge of enhancing biological control through intensive management

The seminal work of Stern and his coauthors on integrated control has had a profound and long‐lasting effect on the development of IPM programs in western orchard systems. Management systems based solely on pesticides have proven to be unstable, and the success of IPM systems in western orchards has been driven by conservation of natural enemies to control secondary pests, combined with pesticides and mating disruption to suppress the key lepidopteran pests. However, the legislatively mandated changes in pesticide use patterns prompted by the Food Quality Protection Act of 1996 have resulted in an increased instability of pest populations in orchards because of natural enemy destruction. The management system changes have made it necessary to focus efforts on enhancing biological control not only of secondary pests but also of primary lepidopteran pests to help augment new pesticides and mating disruption tactics. The new management programs envisioned will be information extensive as well as time sensitive and will require redesign of educational and outreach programs to be successful. The developing programs will continue to use the core principles of Stern and his co‐authors, but go beyond them to incorporate changes in society, technology and information transfer, as needed. Copyright © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry     

Should I fight or should I flight? How studying insect aggression can help integrated pest management

Aggression plays a key role all across the animal kingdom, as it allows the acquisition and/or defence of limited resources (food, mates and territories) in a huge number of species. A large part of our knowledge on aggressive behaviour has been developed on insects of economic importance. How can this knowledge be exploited to enhance integrated pest management? Here, I highlight how knowledge on intraspecific aggression can help IPM both in terms of insect pests (with a focus on the enhancement of the sterile insect technique) and in terms of biological control agents (with a focus on mass‐rearing optimisation). Then, I examine what implications for IPM can be outlined from knowledge about interspecific aggressive behaviour. Besides predator–pest aggressive interactions predicted by classic biological control, I focus on what IPM can learn from (i) interspecific aggression among pest species (with special reference to competitive displacement), (ii) defensive behaviour exhibited by prey against predaceous insects and (iii) conflicts among predaceous arthropods sharing the same trophic niche (with special reference to learning/sensitisation practices and artificial manipulation of chemically mediated interactions). © 2015 Society of Chemical Industry     

Killing two bugs with one stone: a perspective for targeting multiple pest species by incorporating reproductive interference into sterile insect technique

The sterile insect technique is an environmentally friendly method to control and even eradicate agricultural and veterinary insect pests without using chemical pesticides in excess. However, the continuous production and release of sterile insects is economically costly and eradication programs using sterile insects have not always been successful owing to the incomplete mating ability of the sterile insects. Here we focus on the theory and empirical findings of interspecific negative mating interaction, known as reproductive interference, to develop a more cost‐effective and value‐added pest management program. We suggest that sterile insects can be used for simultaneous control of both wild‐type conspecifics and closely related pest species by taking advantage of the fact that, when species recognition abilities are incomplete, courtship and mating are often misdirected toward heterospecies. This new approach might help mitigate economic damage and human health crises caused by pest insects. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry     

Testing banker plants for biological control of mites on roses

We tested whether plant species used in a banker plant system influence the success of a biological control program with predatory mites. Banker plants (BP) may sustain a reproducing population of predators and provide long-term pest suppression. In an experiment lasting 12 weeks, we analyzed the responses of the predatory mite Amblyseius californicus and the pest mite Tetranychus urticae to eight species of potential BP with different morphological structures. Every BP was paired with a rose plant and infested with pest and predatory mites. The measured parameters were vitality and growth of the plants and numbers of predators, pests and their eggs. Reproduction and establishment of the pest and predatory mites differed among plant species as well as plant growth and vitality. Vitis riparia and Viburnum tinus were the most efficient BP in this combination of pest–predator species. Their presence resulted in best health of the rose crops, highest number of predatory mites and lowest number of pests. Both these BP possess domatia which may be responsible for the efficiency in hosting predatory mites. Overall, the species which fulfilled the requirements of a BP best was the local shrub V, tinus, which bore no pests and a very large number of predators and has a compact growth form suited for application in greenhouses. Although our study gives only evidence for an artificial system with a high BP:crop ratio, high numbers of introduced predators and short distances between plants, this study contributes to knowledge of BP systems and to improve the understanding of the criteria for the choice of local plant species to be used as BP for biological control in IPM.     

茶尺蠖生物防治进展

茶尺蠖Ectropis obiqua Prout是茶园中的重要害虫，对它的生物防治研究国内已做了较多的工作。本文从茶尺蠖的研究基础一大量饲养和它的病原性天敌、捕食性天敌、寄生性天敌及信息素等方面对茶尺蠖的生物防治研究作了综述。     

生物防治——害虫综合防治的重要内容

本文阐述了生物防治在综合防治中的重要性和如何全面正确认识生物防治技术。指出生物防治技术在生产上的成功应用,必须要注意与其他植保技术协调。文章还介绍了国内外成功的生防实例和生防必须遵循的基本原则。     

Biological control and plant health in the UK1

The protected crop environment has long been recognized as offering particularly good opportunities for the application of biological control and this is reflected in the predominance of integrated pest management programmes and the wide range of biological control agents available. The introduction of new pest species of quarantine concern can often occur in glasshouse crops, as a result of international trade in plant material, and can have a highly disruptive impact upon well established, integrated pest management programmes. The use of biological control agents against quarantine pests is discussed, including both the use of exotic species and those established in the UK. The relevant legislation in the UK is outlined in relation to the introduction of non-native species, including both plant protection and conservation interests. Environmental safety aspects such as the impact of such introductions on non-target species and issues of quality control to prevent the introduction of contaminants are noted as of particular plant health interest.     

The Importance of Ecological Studies to Pest Control in Malaysian Plantations

Abstract

Ecology is the study of the relationships of communities of living organisms with their environments and each other, in particular the factors affecting their numbers. Pest control is, essentially, modification by man of these numbers in an agricultural environment, and it is argued that investigations of and a general awareness concerning ecological factors are essential prerequisites for proper effectiveness. Examples from Malaysian plantations are given of major outbreaks and great expense arising from failure to observe these principles and, on the other hand, of ecological studies forming the basis of successful and cheap control procedures. Plantations exhibit a high degree of biological stability, especially in the continually warm and humid climate of Malaysia, so that many pests are of only potential severity, breaking out spasmodically, but conditions are also ideal for the existence of pests for their rapid increase if this stability is upset. Malaysia is predominantly agricultural and much dependent on efficient plantation production. Pests menace efficiency, but the insurance of continually increasing ecological knowledge will keep to a minimum both the economic impact of pests and the considerable risk of severely aggravating pest problems by unsuitable control measures. Some consideration is given to relating pest control practice in Malaysian plantations with modern thinking on environmental problems.     

害虫生物防治新技术——载体植物系统

建立一个自我维持并可有效降低害虫种群水平的系统是害虫生物防治长期追求的理想目标。载体植物系统（banker plant system）又称开放式天敌饲养系统,是近年来开发出的一种集保护利用本地天敌、人工繁殖释放天敌以及异地引进天敌等传统技术特点为一体的新型生物防治技术。载体植物（banker plants）、替代食物（alternative foods）和有益生物（beneficial）是该系统的三个基本要素。本文对载体植物和载体植物系统概念、特点以及近年来国际上的研究进展进行了综述,并结合自身的研究实践,举例介绍载体植物系统的应用,以推动国内外对载体植物系统的研究和应用。