A profiling TDR probe for water content and electrical conductivity measurements of soils

Measurements of water content profiles are of great interest in hydrology and soil science. Time domain reflectometry (TDR) is a well‐established method for water content measurements; however, most TDR probe designs are suitable for measurements in only a small soil volume. In this article, a 1‐m long TDR profiling probe with five measurement sections is described. Unlike most other previous profiling probes, our probe allows for both dielectric permittivity (ε) and electrical conductivity (σ_a) measurements. The accuracy of the ε and σ_a measurements was excellent; the precision of the measurements was, however, significantly poorer than with a 0.20‐m long standard three rod TDR probe. The new probe was installed in a field and successfully measured water content profiles during the growing season of 2009. During an infiltration experiment it was shown that because of its geometry, the profiling probe over‐estimated the wetting‐front velocity. At a 0.10‐m depth, the over‐estimation was almost 30%. The over‐estimate will be less significant at greater depths.     

Prediction of topsoil organic matter and clay content from measurements of spectral reflectance and electrical conductivity

Soil organic matter (SOM) and clay content of a soil characterized as a coarse sandy loam were modelled using hyperspectral reflectance data acquired with a spectrometer and soil electrical conductivity (SEC) data acquired with an EM38 instrument manufactured by Geonics Ltd. The partial least squares (PLS) regression method was applied and the results validated using cross validation. First, the models were calibrated using only spectral reflectance data; then EM38 data were included in the X-matrix of predictors. Although SEC is significantly correlated with clay content, the results showed that EM38 data did not improve model performance for the estimation of soil organic matter content and clay content, despite the fact that EM38 showed significant correlation with clay content.     

砖肥对土壤电导率及烤烟根系分布的影响

紫色土分布区域降雨集中、土壤养分淋失严重,导致土壤肥力下降、根区养分供应不足、根系发育不良等问题,提升土壤养分的供应强度有利于优化根系空间分布格局和促进根系生长。将原料肥和有机物料混匀后,利用1400 kg/cm2的强大压力将其压制成砖肥(BF),同时,设置原料肥和有机物料物理混合(CK)为对照。于关键生育期测定垄向截面不同土层深度和离烟株不同远近距离的格点位置的土壤电导率(EC)、不同直径的根系组成和根系生物量,采用Logistic模型、指数模型拟合根系空间分布关键参数和生物量累积关键参数,研究砖肥对烤烟根区电导率及根系生长的影响。结果表明:在烤烟根系主要分布区,即主根系半径12.5 cm处,深度2.5～12.5 cm的土壤剖面,BF处理的EC比CK高90.5～281.6 μS/cm;主根系半径17.5 cm处,深度2.5～17.5 cm的土壤剖面,BF的EC比CK高160.1～392.2 μS/cm。在主根系15～20 cm水平半径内,BF的根系重量比CK提高150%;分布在10～15 cm深度土层的根系重量提高了26.5%,并且土壤剖面10～20 cm之间的侧根伸展性更强、分布更广。移栽后75、90和105 d,BF的田间根系生物量分别比CK提高12.7、11.9和9.7 g/株,烟叶生物量分别比CK高24.5、13.6和17.1 g/株,根系和烟叶生物量最大累积速率分别比CK提高了43.5%和15.7%。对于淋失严重的土壤,施用砖肥可以提高养分供应强度、优化根系分布格局和促进烤烟生长发育。     

Use of electrical conductivity to estimate effects of competing ions on radionuclide distribution coefficients

The distribution coefficient (K _d) between the soil solid phase and the liquid phase is a commonly used parameter to evaluate radionuclide behavior in soil. For reliable evaluation, the variability of the K _ddue to changes of environmental conditions should be clarified. In the present study, applicability of electrical conductivity (EC) to estimate effects of competing ions on K _dwas examined in batch experiments. The K _dof five radionuclides (⁶⁰Co, ⁵⁴Mn, ⁸⁵Sr, ¹³⁷Cs, ⁶⁵Zn) were found to be in inverse proportion to the supernatant EC. The K _dof ⁶⁰Co and ⁵⁴Mn were increasing at 7 days and no stable K _dcould be determined. For ⁸⁵Sr, ¹³⁷Cs, and ⁶³Zn, the regression equations obtained between the K _dof the equilibrium state and the supernatant EC were validated in another experiment; it is expected that their K _ds can be determined accurately using the EC. Because of its simplicity in measurements, using EC should be very practical for estimating effects of competing ions on K _dof selected radionuclides.     

Heavy metal deposition in Scandinavia

Maps showing the regional differences in the atmospheric deposition of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Fe have been prepared for Finland, Norway and Sweden from data obtained by means of moss analysis, a method previously shown to be a sensitive and reliable tool in measuring heavy metal deposition. In all elements the minima were recorded in northern Norway, the maxima in south-central or south-western Sweden and southernmost Norway. The greatest regional differences were measured in Pb and Cd.     

Heavy metal distribution and mobilization in sediments from a drinking water reservoir near a mining area

Water, Air, & Soil Pollution - This study was prompted by concern about the possible heavy metal contamination of the Flumendosa lake, a drinking water reservoir located downstream from the...     

Heavy metal contents in river sediments

Extensive sample material from river sediments of Carinthia (Austria) was investigated with regard to the contents of heavy metals that are relevant to the environment, Zn, Cd, Pb, Cu, Cr and Ni. The fraction <20 μm was separated from the total sample to minimize the effect of grain size. The disintegration was done with aqua regia. The results were related to the geochemical data of the geological background. Therefore the amount of anthropogenic pollution due to industry and overcrowded areas was determined. Especially the influence of industrial emissions from Pb-Zn smeltings is shown by extremely high values of Zn (18400 ppm), Cd (126 ppm) and Pb (7540 ppm). The contents of Cu, Cr and Ni in the metamorphic rocks from the Central Alps represent the geogenic influences, but the high values from 200 to 300 ppm Cr refer to actions of industries producing highly refrectory materials and chemical industries. The results of the elements zinc and nickel are documented in maps.     

植物重金属转运蛋白及其在植物修复中的应用

植物修复技术已成为解决土壤重金属污染的一个绿色环保方法。利用基因工程和分子生物学技术,已经鉴定出一系列与重金属转运相关的蛋白及基因,包括ZIP家族、ABC载体、有机汞裂解酶基因merB、Hg离子还原酶基因merA和金属S蛋白基因MT等。本文着重从细胞、亚细胞水平上综述了一系列重金属转运蛋白的相关分子生物学研究进展及其在植物修复上的应用。     

冬小麦土壤电导率与其产量的相关性

以冬小麦品种京冬12为试验对象,采用1：5土水浸提液的方法在整个冬小麦生长周期测量了土壤电导率。冬小麦产量由带有全球定位系统的联合收割机获得,定位系统可以记录小区位置。使用统计方法对冬小麦在不同生长期的土壤电导率和产量进行了相关分析,线性分析结果表明冬小麦在抽穗期以后两者间有一定线性关系。建立了冬小麦在抽穗期、乳熟期和灌浆期土壤电导率值和产量的关系模型,模型的决定系数R2均大于0.630,其中灌浆期模型的决定系数最高达到0.678,表明应用土壤电导率建立产量预测模型可以得到较好的结果。试验结果表明,土壤电导率作为一种复杂的土壤理化参数,可以作为土壤生产潜力的评价指标,可以用来评估作物产量、定义管理区和为精细农业提供变量处方管理。     

Heavy metal species,mobility and availability in soils

The ecological effects of heavy metals in soils are closely related to the content and speciation of the elements in the solid and liquid phases of soils. Methods for the determination of metal species in both phases are described and critically evaluated. In connection with the possible binding mechanisms of heavy metals in soils the concept of specific and non-specific adsorption is discussed. Recent results indicate that the adsorption of heavy metals on soil particles is not only restricted to the formation of surface complexes but can also take place in the interior of minerals. Diffusion processes of heavy metals into soil minerals are described for goethite. In order to assess metal mobility and availability in soils, the concentration and speciation of metals in the soil solution or in comparable aeqeous equilibrium solutions of soil samples and the transfer of metals from solid pools to the liquid phase and vice versa have to be assessed. Methods for the determination of the amount of plant available heavy metals are described and the associated problems discussed.     

Evaluating soil salinity status from bulk electrical conductivity and permittivity

In the range of volumetric water content, θ, from about 0.12 cm³ cm^–3 to saturation the relation between bulk electrical conductivity, C_b, and bulk electrical permittivity, ε, of mineral soils was observed to be linear. The partial derivative ?C_b/?ε appeared independent of the moisture content and directly proportional to soil salinity. We found that the variable X_s = ?C_b/?ε determined from in situ measurements of C_b(θ > 0.2) and ε(θ > 0.2) can be considered as an index of soil salinity, and we call it the ‘salinity index’. Knowing the index and sand content for a given soil we could calculate the electrical conductivity of the soil water, C_w, which is a widely accepted measure of soil salinity. The two variables from which the salinity index can be calculated, i.e. C_b and ε, can be read simultaneously from the same sensor by time-domain reflectometry. Quantities and symbols a constant /dS m^–1 b constant c constant /dS m^–1 C _b electrical conductivity of bulk soil /dS m^–1 C _b′ constant equal to 0.08 dS m^–1 C _s electrical conductivity of a solution used to moisten soil samples /dS m^–1 C _w electrical conductivity of soil water defined as the soil salinity /dS m^–1 C _wref reference salinity (that truly existing) resulting from the procedure of moistening samples, expressed as C_s + C_r/dS m^–1 C _r baseline value of C_s due to residual soluble salts present in the soil /dS m^–1 d constant D dry soil bulk density /g cm^–3 l slope r ratio S sand content /% by weight t time /s X _s salinity index /dS m^–1 X _si initial salinity index when distilled water is used to moisten soil samples /dS m^–1 Y a moisture-independent salinity-dependent variable /dS m^–1 z coordinate along direction of flow of the soil solution ε′ constant equal to 6.2 ε relative bulk electrical permittivity (dielectric constant) of the soil θ volumetric water content determined thermogravimetrically using oven-drying /cm³ cm^–3     

洛惠渠灌区地下水电导率时间稳定性分析

土壤盐渍化是当前世界农业发展的重要制约因素,研究地下水电导率的时空变化特征对灌区地下水农业灌溉具有重要指导意义。该研究基于2004-2010年对洛惠渠灌区3个阶地51个观测井地下水电导率的长序列监测结果,利用相对差分法、Spearman秩相关系数法和Morlet小波变换的方法分析了研究区地下水电导率的时间稳定性和周期性特征。结果表明:3个阶地在不同监测时间的电导率平均值均表现为阶地3(海拔369~388 m)阶地1(海拔342~360 m)阶地2(海拔360~369 m),且各阶地间地下水电导率的平均值均存在极显著差异(P0.01)。3个阶地在不同时间的地下水电导率均属于中等变异,变异系数的范围为44%~75%。井点地下水电导率的时间稳定性强弱与其所在阶地关系不大,不同阶地的地下水电导率均表现出强烈的时间稳定性。阶地1、阶地2和阶地3的地下水电导率代表性位置点分别为40#、38#和45#井点;而整个研究区的地下水电导率代表性位置点为2#井点。基于对36#(高电导率)和43#(低电导率)井点地下水电导率和水位的小波分析表明研究区地下水电导率和水位存在周期性变化。结果表明,洛惠渠灌区地下水电导率具有很强的时间稳定性和周期性,可以利用地下水电导率代表性位置点来监测研究区地下水平均电导率的变化,从而为灌区快速准确地确定灌溉时间以降低土壤盐渍化风险提供一定的参考。     

重金属迁移与土壤性质的关系

Cu, Zn, Pb and Hg runoff from yellow limestone soil and purple soils and the relationships between the mobility of the heavy metals and the soil characteristics were studied in laboratory using a rainfall simulator. The results showed that the concentrations of soluble Zn in surface runoff were significantly negatively correlated with the contents of < 0.002 mm particles and CEC of the soils, indicating that Zn was mostly adsorbed by clays in the soils. The contents of Cu and Hg in surface runoff were positively related to their contents in the soils. The amounts of Cu, Zn, Pb and Hg removed by surface runoff were influenced by the amounts of soil and water losses and their contents in the soils, and were closely related to the contents of soil particles 1~0.02 mm in size.     

Heavy metal contamination of soils in Northern Slovakia

Environmental damages like forest decline in Northern Slovakia could be a result of long-distance transport of pollutants with the dominating north-west winds. On 10 sites, primarily in the northbound upper slopes of west-east oriented mountain ranges in Northern Slovakia, the extent of the heavy metal contamination in soils along a north-south transect was examined. Oi, Oe, Oa, A, and B horizons were sampled and the total concentrations of Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn were determined. The ranges of heavy metal concentrations in the forest floor were higher than reported for comparable samples from Bavarian soils except for Zn (Cd: 0.65–1.77; Cr: 12–40; Cu: 19–41; Ni: 8–24; Pb: 70–187; Zn: 31–92 mg kg^?1), in the mineral soil the concentrations were lower. The depth distribution of the metal concentrations indicated a contamination with Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn. The concentration differences between forest floor and mineral soil tended to be higher at the northern than at the southern sites for Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn, indicating a long-distance transport from the north. Correlation and principal component analyses of the total metal concentrations revealed three groups: Cu, Pb, and Zn inputs mainly seemed to result from long-distance transport from the north, Cr and Ni inputs additionally from local sources. Cd probably had its origin mainly in local sources. This result was further confirmed by the grouping of the sites when clustered.     

Heavy metal studies of crops and soils in Noua Scotia

Abstract

The analysis of Nova Scotia podzol soils and vegetable tissue grown on these soils showed considerable variation in heavy metal content. The lead, copper, molybdenum and zinc contents in soil ranged from 8–352; 3.0–81.1;<0.05–12.1; and 104–984 p.p.m. respectively, while vegetation showed the following range of contents for these elements, 0.8–185.0; 1.0–40.4; <0.02–1.27 and 2.6–240.0 p.p.m. The lead, copper and molybdenum in soils from roadside, intensively farmed and anomaly areas showed substantial increases in content over the lightly farmed areas. Zinc did not follow this pattern. Vegetable tissue followed the same general trend with above ground plant portions having higher metal contents than those below ground. Overall results indicated that above normal heavy metal contents in soils and plants are due to certain geologic formations and contributory man made factors.     

基于Wenner和Schlumberger双组态融合的土壤电导率测量装置

土壤电导率的准确、实时和原位获取可为农业生产精准管理提供有效的数据支撑,为提高传统电流-电压四端法测量精度,该研究基于电流-电压四端法3种测量组态,开展土壤电导率主要影响因素（土壤含水率、电极入土深度、土壤坚实度和土壤处理方式）对电流-电压四端法的3种测量组态测量精度影响的试验。结果表明,Wenner和Schlumberger两种测量组态可较好的适用于不同土壤环境条件。进一步以Wenner和Schlumberger两种测量组态所测土壤电导率值为输入量,基于BP神经网络构建了双组态融合的土壤电导率回归模型,并在此基础上设计了一种土壤电导率测量装置,该装置主要包括JESTON nano、STM32单片机数据采集模块、传感器、激励源及差分放大模块等组件。工作稳定性试验结果显示,该装置在不同土壤电导率梯度条件下测量数据的标准偏差均小于0.43 μS/mm,田间性能对比试验结果显示,该装置测量数据的均方根误差值为0.18 μS/mm,测量精度优于传统单独测量组态和市面常用土壤电导率测量仪,以上结果表明所研制的土壤电导率测量装置具有较好的工作稳定性和测量精度。该研究可为田间土壤信息的实时原位采集提供一种高精度的检测工具和技术手段。     

Relationships between electrical conductivity and fertilizer levels in an azalea Liner growing medium

Abstract

Regression analyses were used to survey the effects of extractable NO₃‐N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and soil pH on electrical conductivity (EC) in a 1: 1: 1 (v/v/v) peat‐sand‐perlite azalea (Rhododendron sp.) growing medium amended with soluble 21–3–6 (N‐P‐K) or slow‐release 18–3–6 fertilizer sources. Simple linear correlations indicated a high degree of relationship between NO₃‐N, P, and K versus EC (r=0.95**, 0.79**, and 0.79**, respectively). Partial regression coefficients suggested that NO.‐N was the primary ionic species affecting EC. The correlations between EC versus P and K were apparently related to their intercorrelation with NO₃ ‐N, associated with the use of N‐P‐K fertilizers. These relationships were constant across fertilizer sources. The results demonstrate a potential for the use of soil EC in the estimation of NO₃‐N in soilless rooting media.     

TDR estimation of electrical conductivity and saline solute concentration in a volcanic soil

Relative to montmorillonitic or kaolinitic soils, volcanic soils have atypical dielectric characteristics that interfere with the applicability of the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) technique for soil moisture (θ) determination when common, empirical calibration equations are used. This particular dielectric response affects estimation of salinity in volcanic soils. Six TDR-based methods to estimate bulk electrical conductivity (σ_a) on a range of KCl saline reference solutions were compared, with Nadler's method giving the best results (R_1:1²=0.988). Three models (linear, non-linear and empirical) for predicting soil solution electrical conductivity (σ_w) based on σ_a and θ, were experimentally tested on 24 hand-packed soil columns varying in salinity (Br⁻) from 0.2 to 4.0 dS m⁻¹, each in four θ levels (36–58%). Rhoades' linear model performed better, especially for large water contents, than the other two (R_1:1²=0.986 vs. 0.976 and 0.983, respectively). An interpretation in terms of mobile vs. immobile volumetric fractions of water present in volcanic soils is suggested as a possible explanation for these results. The empirical model resulted over-parameterized and an alternative equation with fewer non-correlated parameters, σ_a=(aθ²+bθ)σ_w+cθ², is proposed and tested with good results in volcanic soils from the Canary Islands and New Zealand. The equation encompasses both the relative dielectric dominance of the mobile water fraction at high water content typical of volcanic soils, and of the immobile fraction at low water contents. Simultaneous measurements made with a standard four-electrode probe and TDR gave good correlation (R²=0.964). A good linear correlation was also found between tracer concentration in the soil solution and σ_w (R²=0.960). Nadler's and the new empirical model also tested with good results under dynamic (flow) conditions during a miscible displacement experiment in a large monolith using bromide as a tracer. The method reveals itself as a robust tool for solute transport studies under controlled salinity conditions in a volcanic soil.     

Heavy metal tolerance of nematode-trapping fungi in lead-polluted soils

A study was conducted to establish whether the diversity of nematode-trapping fungi in Pb-polluted soils increases or decreases with increasing degree of soil contamination, and whether the fungi from polluted soils exhibit higher tolerance to Pb toxicity than those from unpolluted soils. Five genera containing 28 nematode-trapping fungi were recorded in total from five collection sites highly contaminated by Pb, with the concentration ranging from 306 to 4907 mg kg⁻¹. These fungi fell into seven groups according to their trapping mechanisms. In this area, the most frequent group was the net former of which 16 species were recorded and its occurrence frequency (61.15%) was higher than those of the others. Fungal diversity of NTF was slightly positively correlated with the Pb pollution levels (r = 0.29), which suggested the distribution of nematode-trapping fungi was not restricted by the heavy metal at these sites. The mycelial growth of nematode-trapping fungi which derived from either Pb-polluted soils or from unpolluted soils was completely inhibited by 1.8 mmol of Pb. At the Pb concentration of 1.2 mmol, the inhibition growth rates varied between 18.50 and 22.57% and there was no significant difference in the Pb tolerance of nematode-trapping fungi as to whether the strains derived from Pb pollution soils or unpolluted soils.     

Heavy metal accumulation in plants on Mn Mine tailings

The profile distribution of β-gulcosidase activity in twelve typical paddy soil profiles with high productivity in the Taihu Lake region of China were investigated. Activities of β-gulcosidase in the plow layers were in the range of 52.68- 137.02μg PNP g^-1 soil h^-1 with a mean of 89.22μg PNP g^-1 soil h^-1. However, most plow layers ranged from 70 to 110 μg PNP g^-1 soil h^-1. The profile distribution of β-gulcosidase activity in the 12 soil profiles decreased rapidly with soil depth, with activity at the 60 cm depth only about 10% of that in the surface layers （0-15 cm or 0-20 cm）. In these soil profiles, β-gulcosidase activity was significantly positively correlated with soll organic carbon and arylsulphatase activity. Meanwhile, a significantly negative correlation was shown between β-gulcosidase activity and soil pH.