乳蛋白基因在转基因动物乳腺细胞中特异性表达的研究进展

乳蛋白是乳的主要营养成分，乳蛋白的种类及其在乳中的浓度都影响乳的品质，而乳中各乳蛋白的含量都受到相应乳蛋白基因的控制。通过转基因技术，可以在转基因动物乳腺细胞中特异性地表达目的蛋白，从而改善乳的品质以及生产具有特殊药用价值的乳产品。本文主要概述乳蛋白多态性及其作用，乳蛋白基因及多态性，并着重介绍乳蛋白基因在转基因动物体内的表达调控；通过介绍大量转基因试验的研究成果，以探寻改变乳成分的分子遗传基础。     

乳蛋白基因及其应用的研究进展

有针对性地进行良种选育是提高产奶动物生产性能的有效途径。因编码乳蛋白基因的不同，不同品种的奶用动物所产的乳波各异，因此乳蛋白的类型及其在乳中的比例可运用到实际育种中去，作为间接选种的遗传标记。本文主要综述了乳蛋白多态性、乳蛋白基因多态性及其与乳产品特性之间的关系，并介绍了乳蛋白多态性的实际应用及一些有待解决的问题。     

通过转基因改善家畜奶的品质

通过大量的研究报道，综述了转基因技术在改善家畜奶品质方面的研究概况，如提高奶中κ-、αs1-、αs2-和β－酪蛋白含量，增加溶菌酶含量，生产人乳铁蛋白和乳白蛋白，降低乳糖含量，使其品质更接近人奶。     

麦洼牦牛干乳期乳的生化性质

分析了１９头麦洼牦牛干乳期乳中γ－谷胺酰转肽酶，淀粉酶，碱性磷酸酶，乳过氧化物酶的活力，乳蛋白，乳糖，乳脂的含量及乳蛋白的组成，并测定了Ｋ，Ｎａ，Ｃａ，Ｍｇ，Ｐ的含量。结果显示：同常乳期相比，干乳期乳中γ－ＧＴ，ＡＫＰ的活力及乳蛋白，乳脂的含量显著提高，而乳糖含量下降。     

影响生鲜乳蛋白质含量的因素及调控措施

生鲜乳中乳蛋白含量受许多因素的影响，如遗传、生理阶段、环境、疾病及饲养方式等，而奶牛日粮营养成分是影响生鲜乳中乳蛋白含量的主要因素。合理配制平衡日粮，对提高乳蛋白含量有重要作用。     

2008-2009年反刍动物营养研究进展Ⅲ.蛋白质营养

蛋白质营养是生命活动的最基本营养源。反刍动物具有自身特有的消化生理特点,如何合理搭配日粮,优化瘤胃内氮素环境,提高氮素的利用效率,进而提高胃肠道和组织器官的吸收,增加乳产量、乳蛋白产量和改善乳蛋白组分和含量,降低氮素排放对环境的污染等已成为当前反刍动物氮素代谢的热点和重点问题。同时,由于蛋白质资源的日益短缺,精细化饲养模式迫在眉睫。分子生物学技术、血插管技术和各种组学技术的进步,为深入研究乳蛋白合成底物的转运、利用机制及其机理提供了可能。作者主要从蛋白质如何在消化道内代谢、影响乳蛋白合成的因素等方面对2009年蛋白质营养研究新进展进行综述。     

提高荷斯坦奶牛乳蛋白质的几项关键措施

牛奶中蛋白质和脂肪含量是决定牛奶质量的重要指标。乳蛋白是一种营养价值很高的蛋白质，它的氨基酸含量和构成比例基本上与人体所需氨基酸的数量、比例相接近。当今世界上许多国家，在牛奶价格体系中都把乳蛋白的价值放在首位，有的国家乳蛋白和乳脂肪比价甚至达1．5：1。我国新的巴氏杀菌乳标准已把乳蛋白作为一项主要指标列入。作为“南方奶牛之乡”的金华，如何采取有力措施来提高奶牛乳蛋白质含量，具有十分重要的意义。     

利用转基因技术改善动物乳成分的研究进展

介绍了运用转基因技术改变乳成分来提高乳的营养价值和加工特性，包括提高乳中高价值成分的浓度，消除乳中不理想成分，生产人乳中一些成分以及利用乳腺生物反应器生产药物蛋白。可以预言，利用转基因技术改善乳成分将为整个乳业生产带来一场变革。     

我国转基因奶牛新品种研究获得重大突破

中国农业大学李宁院士课题组目前成功培育出一批人乳铁蛋白转基因奶牛．这标志着我国转基因奶牛新品种培育和动物生物反应器技术达到了国际先进水平．为即将实施的国家转基因生物新品种培育重大专项奠定了坚实基础.专家认为．这些转基因奶牛研制成功的重要意义在于．它们不仅能大规模生产巨大应用前景的重组人乳铁蛋白．用于新型婴幼儿配方奶粉、功能食品和药品等开发．而且能表现出高乳蛋白含量、抗乳房炎等新特性．是培育奶牛新品种的良好材料．     

乳的合成过程及其在生产中的应用技术

乳脂、乳蛋白和乳糖是牛奶中的主要营养成分，也是影响牛奶品质的主要因素，通过营养调控途径可以有效改善牛奶中的乳脂率、乳蛋白率和乳糖含量，本文阐述了牛奶中乳脂、乳蛋白和乳糖三大营养物质的合成过程、作用机理以及生产中的实践应用技术。     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Evaluation of biohydrogenation rate of canola vs. soya bean seeds as unsaturated fatty acids sources for ruminants in situ

An experiment was conducted to study disappearance of C14 to C18 fatty acids, lag times and biohydrogenation (BH) rates of C18 fatty acids of ground soya bean and canola seeds in situ. Three ruminally fistulated Dallagh sheep were used to determine ruminal BH of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs). Differences in the disappearance of fatty acids through the bags and lag times were observed between the oilseeds. We saw that the longer the incubation time of the oilseeds in the rumen, the lower the content of C18:2 and C18:3. Significantly higher lag times for both C18:2 and C18:3 were observed in ground canola compared to ground soya bean. BH rates of C18:2 and C18:3 fatty acids in soya bean were three times higher than those of canola. These results suggest that the fatty acid profile of fat source can affect the BH of UFAs by rumen micro‐organisms. So that UFAs of canola had higher ability to escape from ruminal BH. It seems that fatty acid profile of ruminant products is more affected by canola seed compared to soya bean seed.     

Serum biochemical values and mineral element contents of tissues in yaks

Serum biochemical values and the wet weight to dry weight ratios of tissues were determined in yaks in Shandan county of Gansu province. The liver, kidney, heart and muscle contents of seven elements in yaks were also analysed. Most serum biochemical values were similar to those of cattle, camels and sheep, but the calcium concentration was considerably above the normal range for other ruminants. The liver contained the highest concentrations of copper, manganese and cobalt and the kidney of selenium, iron and calcium.Abbreviations Alb albumin - ALT alanine aminotransferase - AST aspartate aminotransferase - BUN blood urea nitrogen - Chol cholesterol - Glob globulin - -GT -glutamyl transpeptidase - IP inorganic phosphorus - TP total protein     

Evaluation of the Microbiological Status of Milk and Various Structures in Mammary Glands from Naturally Infected Dairy Cows

A knowledge of the microbiological status of milk and of the different structures in the mammary glands has great importance in elucidating the pathogenesis of mammary gland infections. The objective of this study was to evaluate the microbiological status of various structures in the mammary glands from naturally infected dairy cows following slaughter. A total of 94 samples of milk, 184 samples of mammary parenchyma, 168 samples of gland cisterns, and 168 samples of teat cisterns were collected for microbiological examination. Microorganisms were detected in 59.9% of all samples, 67.0% of the milk samples, 70.1% of the mammary parenchymas, 55.9% of the gland cisterns and 48.8% of the teat cistern samples. When all samples were considered, coagulase-negative Staphylococcus were the most prevalent (35.7%) followed by coagulase-positive Staphylococcus (12.2%), Corynebacterium bovis (2.4%), Prototheca sp. (1.9%), and Streptococcus dysgalactiae (1.5%). There was a significantly higher occurrence of microorganisms in the milk and mammary parenchyma compared to the gland cisterns and teat cisterns. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Development and survival of free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep and goats on pasture in the Nigerian derived savanna

Four grass plots were sequentially contaminated with goat faeces containing known numbers of unembryonated eggs of predominantly Haemonchus contortus and Trichostrongylus spp. between October 1982 and April 1983. Four other plots were similarly contaminated with sheep faeces between February and May 1987. An additional plot was repeatedly contaminated with sheep faeces from February to April 1987. Populations of free-living stages in faeces and of infective larvae (L₃) in the herbage were subsequently monitored until the end of April and June of 1983 and 1987 respectively. During February and May 1987 two control cultures of sheep faeces were incubated in the laboratory at 25°C–30°C and at a constant temperature of 50°C and the free-living development was also monitored. L₃ developed very readily in the faeces cultured at 25°C–30°C and in those spread on a grass plot in October, at the end of the wet season, but developed less on the plot contaminated in May at the start of the wet season. Worm eggs in faeces deposited on plots during the hot dry season (December to April) or incubated at 50°C died and disintegrated after 24–48 h exposure to the high environmental temperatures. The results indicate that it is unlikely that gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep and goats can develop or survive on open pasture during the dry season in the Nigerian derived savanna zone.