What rights and benefits? The implementation of participatory forest management in Kenya: The case of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve

The study espoused the access analytical framework to investigate how introduction of Participatory Forest Management (PFM) in Kenya has changed the various actors’ ability to benefit from the forest resources of Eastern Mau Forest Reserve. Data collected through key informant interviews, and a household survey showed that implementation of PFM has triggered new income opportunities for forest adjacent communities in seedling production and beekeeping. However, PFM bestowed no real decision-making powers to the established Community Forest Associations (CFAs) over important forest resources such as timber and firewood. Members of the local communities and other actors have continued to access these resources through various structural and relational means, in the same way as before the introduction of PFM. Further, it is documented that PFM has introduced additional burdens on the local communities, especially the poorest households, as a result of increased enforcement of rules. Based on these findings, it is suggested that the PFM policy in Kenya, in its current form, is unlikely to realize its dual objectives of forest conservation and livelihood enhancement. To attain them would require a further devolution of rights to the CFAs.     

Farmers’ Fruit Tree-growing Strategies in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon and Nigeria

Many studies have stressed the importance of trees to rural households. Few, however, have focused on actual numbers and densities of trees in different land-use systems. Based on community-level participatory research in six communities, semi-structured household interviews and full-farm fruit tree inventories, this study aims to understand farmers’ tree-planting strategies. Relationships between the diversity, number and density of fruit trees and farm size, land-use system, land tenure, distance from the homestead, proximity to the forest, market access and household characteristics are investigated. The key factors determining the differences in tree-growing strategies between communities appear to be market access, land use and access to forest resources. Within communities, differences between individual households were less easy to explain but tenure was important as was farm size. Smaller farms had higher fruit tree densities, a relationship that was particularly strong in communities with good market access. Overall there was a great deal of variability both within and between communities and many of the factors affecting tree-planting decisions were found to be highly inter-related. Despite this complexity, trees on farm play an important role in rural household's livelihoods. Therefore, expansion of tree cultivation should be recognized as a promising pathway to achieve increased income and food production by policy makers and extensionists alike. In addition to improved tree propagation and management techniques, farmers should be strengthened in the processing and marketing of agroforestry tree products and more emphasis should be placed on the development of tree enterprises. By doing so, farmers will be able to earn a more important and consistent income from fruit trees, contributing to the Millennium Development Goals.     

Household participation in Payments for Ecosystem Services: A case study from Mozambique

The success of the PES programme in developing countries depends on the active participation and contribution of rural households. This paper investigates the factors influencing rural households' decision to participate in the PES programme in the N'hambita Community in Sofala Province, Mozambique, based on data collected through a survey of 115 households, using factor analysis and multiple regressions. Factor analysis has shown that the main factors influencing the household decision to participate in the programme are latent variables labelled as economic benefits, followed by social inclusion and forest conservation accounting, with 31%, 19% and 14% of the total variance respectively. Multinomial logistic regression demonstrates that the gender, marital status, household age, the educational level of the head, land area, distance from the project centre and source of income are important variables in explaining the level of participation of the three factors.     

Farmer participation in reforestation incentive programs in Costa Rica

Reforestation programs are a common policy response among developing country governments in the tropics attempting to deal with environmental and economic problems caused by widespread deforestation. The objective of this paper is to examine participation by small-and medium-sized farms in two reforestation programs undertaken in recent years by one country, Costa Rica, which has been at the forefront of developing country environmental protection efforts. Analysis of a survey of 243 program participants and non-participants shows that farm households participating in reforestation programs had generally larger farm sizes, were dedicated to low labor-intensive, land-extensive agricultural activities, faced significant family on-farm labor constraints, were more heavily dependent on off-farm income sources, and had more extensive contact with local extension efforts. Logistic regression is employed to econometrically identify demographic, economic, and land use determinants of farm household participation in reforestation programs; the implications of these findings are analyzed. The limitations of reforestation programs, especially with regard to management factors and quality of reforested plots, are reviewed. Implications for improving the efficiency of reforestation programs and the merits of other policy alternatives are also discussed.     

Therapeutic use of plants by local communities in and around Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary: implications for protected area management in Bangladesh

Traditional systems of medicine have become a topic of global importance recently. Increased commercialization of economically important medicinal plants has resulted in overharvesting, threatening their survival. The present study was carried out to document the indigenous uses of medicinal plants by the local communities in and around Rema-Kalenga Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh. Data collection was predominantly qualitative recording the species use, identifying their relative importance (RI) and assessing the informants’ consensus factor (F_ic) on associated knowledge. We interviewed 140 households of the local community and 5 local herbal practitioners. A total of 44 plant species were in use to treat 33 ailments under 10 broad disease categories. Five species were found to have high use versatility (RI > 1), Emblica officinale L. being the most versatile. Respiratory problems scored the highest F_ic value (0.56) involving the use of 30% of the species recorded. Terminalia bellerica Roxb., Sterculia villosa Roxb., Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. and Terminalia arjuna Bedd. were being harvested commercially. Use by the community, particularly for subsistence consumption, seemed to be sustainable, but commercial extraction of some species appeared unsustainable. Buffer zone-based commercial farming of medicinal plants with a commercial value could serve a dual purpose of assuring sustainable alternative income generation for local communities as well as conserving the natural resources in protected areas.     

Living on the forests: Women and household security in Nigeria

A survey was conducted to obtain information about the use of forest products by rural women for sustaining food and financial security at household level in the Nigerian rainforest zone. Data analysis reveals that the rural women are heavily engaged in harvesting, processing and marketing of forest products; collection of forest products is a specialised activity based on acquired skills and an ecological knowledge of the forests; and collection of medicinal plants is shrewd in secrecy and involves the performance of rituals. Net income generated from natural forests by rural women in the study area varies from about N23,000 to N113,080 per household per season. Forest regeneration has received little attention from both the rural communities and government and this tends to undermine sustained use of the forests.     

Evidence of User Participation in Community Forest Management in the Mid-hills of Nepal: A Case of Rule Making and Implementation

User participation in Community Forestry (CF) regarding forest-related activities from user group formation to implementation of an operational plan is crucial for evaluating the social and biophysical outcomes of a CF program. This study assesses factors responsible for the participation of member households in the planning and implementation process of a CF program in Nepal. Data were collected through a survey of 116 households from six community forest user groups, key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Simple random sampling was used to collect both qualitative and quantitative information from 10 % of households participating in CF, utilizing a semi-structured questionnaire. Binary logistic regression was used to analyze the factors associated with participation in planning and implementations of CF activities. Six socio-demographic and biophysical explanatory variables were included in the analysis, of which Caste, Sex, Age, and Forest Condition were found statistically significant. The results indicate that if the condition of the community forest is perceived as satisfactory, User Committees receive higher user participation in regards to forest development activities and fund mobilization. The results also suggest activities involving physical work attract younger participants. The existing equal access to forest products does not promote equity. However, promoting women and disadvantaged user participation in CF activities may help achieve higher equitability of CF user groups.     

Conservation of a leafy vegetable important for communities in the Nigerian rainforest

Adoption and implementation of sustainable biodiversity conservation are essential for sustaining protected areas. But development of effective strategies to achieve them is problematic. This is often because of limited knowledge about the impact of biodiversity conservation policies on livelihood of indigenous people. This study uses dichotomous choice format to examine willingness to engage in the conservation of an indigenous leafy vegetable – Gnetum africanum Welw. The empirical data were generated from three communities in the vicinity of the Okwangwo Division of the Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The data were analyzed with the aid of the binary logit model. The study showed that the respondents’ mean willingness to pay per year to conserve the leafy vegetable was 7% of their income from non-timber forest products. The decision to conserve the leafy vegetable was influenced by factors such as cost associated with conservation, income from non-timber forest products, the distance of the respondent's residence to the Okwangwo Division, education and occupation.     

Impact of alternative livelihood interventions on household welfare: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Livelihoods of a large number of households in Ethiopia depend on environmental resources. On the other hand, excessive reliance of households on environmental resources for their sustenance has already lead to high rates of deforestation and forest degradation in Ethiopia. A project was set out to provide alternative livelihood activities in order to improve the welfare of vulnerable families who derive their livelihoods mainly from selling firewood and charcoal. The project provided support to women groups to engage in income generating activities that create alternative means of livelihoods. This paper assesses the impacts of participating in alternative livelihood activities on household welfare and environmental protection in rural Ethiopia. The paper uses data from cross-sectional survey involving 450 sample households to examine the difference in household welfare between project participants and non-participants using propensity score matching and inverse probability weighting estimator with regression adjustment. Empirical results show that participation in alternative livelihood activities has contributed to increment in total grain production, increased household income and adoption of natural resources management technologies. Project households consumed more diverse food across food groups and earned an extra $35 per month from local market sales of tree and fruit seedlings. The result was robust and consistent across models. The findings support the notion that new streams of income generating activities can lead to improvements in household's well-being as well as reduction in environmental degradation.     

Peasant charcoal production in the Peruvian Amazon: rainforest use and economic reliance

Recent studies point to the promise of rain forest extraction for more sustainable rural development in Amazonia but often overlook important differences within traditional communities in terms of relative economic reliance upon specific forest resources. This paper reports on a study of charcoal production among forest peasants in an Amazonian river community, near Iquitos, Peru. In-depth household interviews (n=36) provided information on household economic activity, demographic composition, and access to land, labor and capital as well as on the nature, role and economic importance of charcoal in the household economy. Our results indicate that peasant charcoal production — often cast as a rapacious, wasteful use of the forest — can provide significant cash income for forest peoples and high returns per hectare, particularly when integrated into swidden-fallow agroforestry systems, without causing notable forest destruction. Low returns to labor, however, limit prospects for peasants to prosper by charcoal production. Variations in household output of charcoal are explained by differential access to intra- and extra-household labor. Among those households most reliant upon charcoal, two subgroups are found — ‘charcoal-dependent’ households and ‘charcoal-specialized’ households — both of which rely on charcoal production, but for different reasons and with distinct outcomes. These two sub-groups are divided by differences in non-market mediated access to local land and labor. Clearly, to be successful, initiatives aimed at promoting rain forest conservation and management among ‘resource-reliant’ households must be informed by careful attention to the underlying conditions that give rise to differential rain forest reliance.     

Integration of Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Forest and Economic Development of Local Communities

Abstract

Quantification of economic contribution of all forest products is a primary requirement for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities. A methodology for quantification of the contribution of all non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is suggested, and applied to a minuscule sample of seven villages in India for illustrative purposes. A comparative analysis of such contributions of NTFPs in two major types of forest cover, Teak (Tectona grandis) and Sal (Shorea robusta) has been made. The role of NTFPs has been evaluated in terms of three measures of economic development: (i) share in household income, (ii) income distribution, and (iii) mitigation of uncertainties of agricultural income stream due to random fluctuations in weather conditions. A basic strategy for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities, based on socio-economic conditions of the community and silvicultural requirements of the forest resources, is suggested.     

Perspectives on Community-Based Forest Management in Oaxaca,Mexico

Abstract

This compilation of papers explores various aspects related to community-based natural resource management in a comparative analysis of two communities located in different regions of Oaxaca, Mexico: the Chimalapas and the Sierra Norte. The contrasting histories, cultures, and forest ecosystems in the two communities have led to diverse approaches to managing their natural resources. Our analysis highlights the existence of underlying principles driving participatory management approaches, as well as the importance of adapting these approaches to site-specific local conditions. One theme addressed in these papers is the development of appropriate silvicultural techniques that incorporate both the local peoples' needs and experiences with the ecological characteristics of the forest ecosystem. Other land use activities are then discussed that affect management decisions in the regions such as cattle ranching and the collection of medicinal plants within the context of managing for sustainable forest and human ecosystems in the two regions. Finally, the role of community organization and the formation of partnerships with external institutions in strengthening local management and conservation initiatives are also considered. Together, these papers provide a commentary on the potentials and constraints of emerging participatory approaches to managing high priority conservation areas, and which are providing new alternatives where previous models have often failed.     

Utilization of non-timber forest products in humid tropics: Implications for management and livelihood

Community dependence on forest resources for diverse needs has high implications for long term management of forests. Sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is considered best feasible strategy for forest conservation in biodiversity rich areas. This paper examines the heterogeneity of NTFPs use by tribal communities in northeast India, a global hot spot by examining diversity of NTFPs at-large, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue. A total of 343 NTFPs recorded used for diverse purposes by tribal communities. When species choice grouped as per use category, utilization for medicinal (163 species), edible fruits (75 species) and vegetables (65 species) purposes was reasonably high. Community dependence on forest resources was 100% for firewood and house construction material. 76 plant species were sold in three major local markets while an additional 22 species traded at commercial scale mainly outside the state. NTFPs contributed 19-32% of total household income for different tribal communities, which was significant. Illicium griffithii, Rubia cordifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Swertia chirayita, Litsea sebifera, Taxus wallichiana, Valeriana jatamansii, Thalictrum foliolosum, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Everniastrum cirrhatum, Cordyceps sinensis, Aconitum fletcherianum, Nardostachys jatamansi, Picrorhiza kurrooa, Gymnadenia orchidis, Calamus, Quercus and Pinus roxbughii were important commercial species. NTFPs also generated substantial revenue to the State government, though it is falling year after year, which is alarming. To meet community livelihoods, income and forest revenue from NTFPs, it desires a thorough management plan and policy guidelines for these resources from all line departments. The knowledge on diversity, its consumption pattern, and contribution to rural income and forest revenue may enable planners to accurately plan sustainable management of NTFP resources and community development in near future.     

Unpacking the impacts of ‘participatory’ forestry policies: Evidence from Kenya

We evaluate the livelihoods of member and non-members of Community Forestry Associations under Kenya's participatory forest management (PFM) programme. We use propensity score matching of households based on recall based data from before implementation of PFM from 286 households and comparison of current incomes (2012), as well as review of records and interviews. Results reveal that members have higher total and forest-related incomes than non-members and indicate that impacts derive from labour and market opportunities supported by donor institutions, more than from differential access to forest products. In terms of governance the Kenya Forest Service largely remains in control of decision-making. Thus, PFM resembles Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) approaches. We conclude that current forest governance approaches in Kenya appear not to support participation in practice. Further, we conclude that impact evaluations must examine both outcomes and participatory forestry to provide meaningful policy evidence.     

自然保护区森林旅游对农户收入分配结构的影响——以我国5个国家级自然保护区周边社区474户农户为例

在自然保护区发展森林旅游为社区提供了一种更具可持续性的生计方式,改变了农户传统的收入组合模式,不仅带来收入和支出整体增加,也使传统的单一生计方式趋于多样化,但是也在一定程度上影响了农户的收入分配结构,可能带来农户收入分配不平等现象。文中以高黎贡山等5个国家级自然保护区及周边社区为研究区域,拟合洛伦兹曲线并计算基尼系数,分析在自然保护区开展森林旅游背景下农户收入分配结构的变化。研究结果显示:森林旅游为农户收入带来显著提高,森林旅游收入已经成为经营农户的主要家庭收入;经营农户收入分配差距大,非经营农户收入分配差距小,森林旅游在一定程度上加大了农户之间的收入分配不平等。     

Conservation of a Tropical Wet Semi-evergreen Forest Ecosystem by an Indigenous Community in the Bandarban Hill District of Bangladesh: The Role of Intervention

Indigenous communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh had been conserving small patch of forests, commonly called village common forests (VCFs), especially for drinking water and non-timber forest produce. The size of VCFs has been decreasing, due to increasing population and conversion of forests for shifting cultivation. To restore the degraded forest resources and conserve the forest ecosystems in the VCF of the CHT, an intervention was undertaken in Bandarban, Bangladesh by Arannayk Foundation, an organization established jointly by the Government of Bangladesh and the United States of America. A training program on leadership, organizational development and alternative income generating activities was implemented to build the capacity of the members of the VCF management committee. The impact of the interventions was measured at the end of third year. Incomes of VCF-dependent communities were found to increase with resultant reduction of their dependence on VCFs. The intervention encouraged women’s participation in forest management and facilitated a written format of the constitution of the VCF management. The study identified that more training and awareness-raising activities are needed to ensure sustainability of the interventions. Mobilizing funds for the communities for sustainable alternative livelihoods was found effective. Appropriate compensation for conservation was found to make the restoration and conservation activities sustainable.     

Assessment of plant species diversity of ancient tea garden communities in Yunnan, Southwest of China

Ancient tea garden has existed in Lancang County, Yunnan Province for more than 1,300 years, and is regarded as the provenance of Pu’er Tea’s seed source. The ancient tea garden ecosystem is a typical model that integrates conservation biodiversity and utilization of natural resources. In order to reveal the role of biodiversity conservation of this ecosystem, plant diversity and application value of ancient tea gardens, normal tea gardens and secondary forestry communities in Lancang County were surveyed and compared. 360 households investigation were also conducted by using household-based agro-biodiversity assessment (HH-ABA). The results showed: (1) Ancient tea garden communities have high biodiversity, whose plant species diversity (H = 3.03) is lower than that of secondary forestry (H = 4.59) and higher than that of normal tea garden (H = 2.62); (2) Life forms analysis of plant species showed the vertical structure of the ancient tea garden communities are intact, herbs, trees, shrubs, vines, epiphytes are included, which is similar to that of secondary forest, while normal tea garden is dominant by herbs and no trees; (3) A large number of protected species, including five endangered, seven vulnerable and three rare, is well conserved in the ancient tea garden, while no protected species were found in secondary forest and normal tea garden; (4) The analysis of agro-biodiversity revealed that 56 % of plant species in the ancient tea garden are effectively used by households, while no plant except tea trees is used in normal tea garden; (5) The integrated values of ancient tea garden and normal tea garden illustrated that both biodiversity conservation and economic income of ancient tea garden are higher than that of normal tea garden. We suggest that the local peoples’ knowledge and experience on resource management and utilization should be well documented and encouraged, and effective conservation and reasonable utilization of ancient tea garden would be achieved through training and demonstration with the participation of the local government, research institution and farmer.