Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implications for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya

Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. is a secondary forest canopy tree species that has been declining over much of its geographical range in sub-Saharan Africa during recent decades due to unsustainable harvesting of its bark for the international medicinal plant trade. One of the locations where the species is experiencing rapid mortality is Isecheno study site in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya where this study was conducted. Between 1997 and 2003, 21% of the P. africana (10 cm DBH) at Isecheno died and an additional 9% experienced 50% canopy dieback. However, scars from bark harvesting on P. africana were relatively small and scarred trees were not more likely to be dead or dying than unscarred trees, suggesting that bark exploitation is not causing P. africana mortality at Isecheno. Other possible causes that require further evaluation include disease, insect attack, nutrient deficiency, and/or climatic fluctuation. The poor regeneration of P. africana at Isecheno can likely be explained by the relative lack of recent disturbance coupled with the thick undergrowth layer at this site. P. africana mortality is of concern not only because the species is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN, but also because black and white colobus monkeys [Colobus guereza (Rüppell, 1835)] at Isecheno exploit it as their top food species and are particularly reliant on its leaves during times of ‘preferred' Moraceae fruit scarcity. The anticipated continued decline of P. africana may have adverse effects on C. guereza feeding habits, intergroup relations, and population density at Isecheno. Conservation of P. africana offers a formidable challenge since the species appears to require disturbance for regeneration, yet at sites where disturbance is occurring, P. africana is often a target of bark harvesters engaging in unsustainable levels of exploitation.     

不同氮素形态配比对三七根腐病的影响

为明确氮素形态及其配比对三七根腐病发生的影响,采用盆栽试验,研究了5种不同氮素形态配比(铵硝配比分别为0∶100、25∶75、50∶50、75∶25和100∶0)及尖孢镰刀菌(Fusarium oxysporum)侵染对三七[Panax notoginseng (Burk.) F. H. Chen]生长、有效成分以及抗性指标的影响。结果表明,不同氮素形态配比对三七生物量和皂苷含量无明显影响,铵态氮(${NH_{4}}^{+}-N$)可促进可溶性糖的累积;病原菌侵染使三七叶绿素、可溶性糖和黄酮含量降低,随着${NH_{4}}^{+}-N$比例的增加,病情指数增加,过氧化物酶(POD)、多酚氧化酶(PPO)和苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)活性升高,同时伴随酚类和木质素的累积。综上所述,低铵硝配比(特别是25∶75)有利于三七的生长,可降低三七病情指数,减轻三七根腐病的发生。本研究从氮肥施用层面为三七根腐病的防控提供了理论依据。     

Ovaries of Petrobius brevistylis (Archaeognatha, Machilidae) and Tricholepidion gertschi (Zygentoma, Lepidotrichidae): Morphology, ultrastructure and phylogenetic implications

The ovaries of Petrobius brevistylis (Archaeognatha) and Tricholepidion gertschi (Zygentoma) are composed of seven metamerically arranged panoistic ovarioles that are covered with the external epithelial sheath (=tunica externa) and the basal lamina (=tunica propria). The germaria are small and enclose oogonial cells and somatic prefollicular cells. The vitellaria contain 10–15 linearly arranged oocytes that are surrounded by a one-layered follicular epithelium. Oocyte nuclei (=germinal vesicles) are large and possess giant, compact (P. brevistylis) or lobate (T. gertschi) nucleoli. In both studied species the majority of yolk is incorporated to the oocyte via endocytosis; however, appearance of numerous Golgi complexes and rough endoplasmic reticulum cisternae at the onset of vitellogenesis suggests the involvement of these organelles in synthesis of yolk precursors. The obtained results are discussed in the phylogenetic context and support the idea that Lepidotrichidae are the most basal zygentoman clade.     

裸脚菇0612-9提取物对柑橘青、绿霉的抑菌活性及作用机制

为探索裸脚菇0612-9提取物(GSFE)对意大利青霉(Penicillium italicum)和指状青霉(P. digitatum)的抑菌活性和作用机理,本试验采用菌丝生长速率法测定GSFE对意大利青霉和指状青霉的抑菌活性,分析GSFE处理后意大利青霉和指状青霉的菌丝形态、细胞膜通透性和麦角固醇含量变化情况,并通过靶位竞争剂试验探究GSFE的抑菌机理。结果表明,GSFE对意大利青霉和指状青霉的半有效浓度(EC₅₀)值分别为116.76和147.74 μg·mL^-1,最小抑菌浓度(MIC)均为200 μg·mL^-1;经质量浓度为EC₅₀和MIC的GSFE处理后意大利青霉和指状青霉菌丝体均发生严重的皱缩、干瘪,并且胞内呈空泡状结构,细胞质大量减少,胞外相对电导率显著上升,菌体内核酸、可溶性蛋白等胞内物质含量显著降低。这表明意大利青霉和指状青霉细胞膜通透性增加,胞内物质外泄,细胞膜完整性遭到破坏。经浓度为EC₅₀的GSFE处理的意大利青霉和指状青霉菌丝体,其麦角固醇含量均显著降低,分别仅为对照组的17.92%和20.13%。由此可见,GSFE主要通过抑制意大利青霉和指状青霉菌丝体的麦角固醇合成而损伤病原真菌细胞膜的结构和功能。本研究结果为后续开发新型微生物源柑橘采后保鲜剂提供了设计思路。     

铜尾矿污染土壤几种牧草的重金属抗性及微生物群落功能多样性研究

Copper （Cu） mine tailings, because of their high content of heavy metals, are usually hostile to plant colonization. A pot experiment was conducted to determine the tolerance of four forage grasses to heavy metals in Cu mine tailings and to examine the variation in the microbial functional diversity of soils from the tailing sites in southern China. All the four grass species survived on Cu mine tailings and Cu mine tailing-soil mixture. However, on pure mine tailings, the growth was minimal, whereas the growth was maximum for the control without mine tailings. The tolerance of grasses to heavy metals followed the sequence： Paspalum notatum 〉 Festuea arundinaeea 〉 Lolium perenne 〉 Cynodon daetylon. The planting of forage grasses enhanced the soil microbial biomass. The Biolog data indicated that the soil microbial metabolic profile values （average well color development, community richness, and Shannon index） of the four forage grasses also followed the sequence： P. notatum 〉 F. arundinaeea 〉 L. perenne 〉 C. daetylon. Thus, P. notatum, under the experimental conditions of this study, may be considered as the preferred plant species for revegetation of Cu mine tailing areas.     

Soil aggregation in a laboratory experiment: Interactions between earthworms, woodlice and litter palatability

Interactions between soil invertebrate functional groups are still poorly understood. In this study, the effect of the soil dwelling earthworm Aporrectodea caliginosa and the woodlouse Porcellio scaber (litter inhabitant), alone or in combination, on soil aggregation was investigated in laboratory microcosms with litter of different quality (Quercus robur and Fagus sylvatica). After 4 months of incubation, the aggregate size distribution was measured using a dry-sieving method. A. caliginosa played an important role in the formation of large aggregates (>2 mm), whereas P. scaber greatly influenced litter disappearance. A. caliginosa individuals formed a greater number of large aggregates when fed with beech leaves compared to oak leaves even though they preferred the latter. In the presence of beech and P. scaber, A. caliginosa produced significantly fewer large aggregates than expected.     

Biological control of Phytophthora parasitica var. Nicotianae on tobacco seedlings with non-pathogenic binucleate Rhizoctonia fungi

Nonpathogenic binucleate Rhizoctonia fungi (BNR) controlled black shank caused by Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae on greenhouse-grown tobacco seedlings in styrofoam float trays. Three BNR isolates were incorporated into a soil-less mix on colonized, pulverized, sifted rice particles; colonized whole rice grains; or on pelleted tobacco seeds coated with 0.5% methyl cellulose. Five-wk-old seedlings were inoculated with zoospores of P. parasitica var. nicotianae and disease rated over 10 d. The level of protection varied with method of BNR application, ranging from 40 to 70%. Overall, control was better when BNR isolates were applied on rice inocula rather than on BNR-colonized tobacco seeds. From 15% to 80% of individual roots from seedlings grown in soil-less mix amended with BNR-colonized rice grains were colonized while only 0–20% of roots from seedlings grown from BNR-colonized tobacco seeds were colonized. Likewise, 37–100% of soil-less mix amended with BNR-colonized rice grains contained BNR's while less than 3% of soil-less mix was colonized when seedlings emerged from BNR-colonized tobacco seeds. This is the first demonstration of biocontrol of Phytophthora by BNR fungi.     

Impact of West Nile virus and other mortality factors on American white pelicans at breeding colonies in the northern plains of North America

American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos) are colonial-nesting birds and their breeding sites are concentrated in a few small areas, making this species especially vulnerable to factors that can influence productivity, such as disease, disturbance, predation, weather events and loss of nesting habitat. Nearly half of the American white pelican population breeds at four colonies in the northern plains: Chase Lake National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in North Dakota, Bitter Lake (Waubay NWR) in South Dakota, Medicine Lake NWR in Montana, and Marsh Lake in Minnesota. Thus, sustained productivity at these colonies is crucial to the health of the entire species. During the latter half of the 2002 and 2003 breeding seasons, unusually high mortality of pelican chicks was observed at these colonies. West Nile virus (WNv) was identified as one source of these losses. In 2004–2007 we monitored three major colonies in the northern plains to assess mortality of chicks during the late breeding season. We documented severe weather events, disturbance, and WNv as factors contributing to chick mortality. Before WNv arrived in the region in 2002, chick mortality after mid-July was 4%, and then jumped to as high as 44% in the years since WNv arrived. WNv kills older chicks that are no longer vulnerable to other common mortality factors (e.g., severe weather, gull predation) and typically would have survived to fledge; thus WNv appears to be an additive mortality factor. Persistence of lower productivity at American white pelican colonies in the northern plains might reduce the adult breeding population of this species in the region.     

Development of a 16S rRNA microarray approach for the monitoring of rhizosphere Pseudomonas populations associated with the decline of take-all disease of wheat

So far, the analysis of microbial populations associated with wheat monocropping-induced decline of take-all disease (Gaeumannomyces graminis var. tritici) has focused mainly on culturable biocontrol pseudomonads. The objective of this study was to develop a taxonomic rrs (16S rRNA gene) microarray to assess the changes in Pseudomonas populations taking place during take-all decline. The microarray contains 12 probes for five Pseudomonas phylogenetic clusters chosen because they include well-known plant-beneficial pseudomonads. Four of the clusters are within the ‘Pseudomonas fluorescens’ species complex. PCR primers were selected to target these five clusters, and they were validated using 53 pseudomonads belonging or not to these clusters. Microarray analysis of the pseudomonads enabled discrimination between strains from several Pseudomonas clusters. Rhizosphere samples were collected from field plots grown with wheat for 1 (low level of take-all disease), 5 (high level of disease) or 10 years (low level of disease, suppressiveness reached). Microarray data could distinguish Pseudomonas populations from some of the wheat plants grown in the same plot. When comparing treatments, there was a difference between years 1 and 10. Cloning–sequencing of rrs enabled to define more precisely this difference by identifying two major Pseudomonas populations, one associated with year 1 and the other with year 10 (disease suppressiveness), which represent new clades within the ‘P. fluorescens’ complex. These populations may be useful as soil quality indicators. In conclusion, the combination of microarray and cloning–sequencing approaches highlighted changes in the prevalence of two major Pseudomonas populations, giving new insights on the dynamics of root-associated pseudomonads during take-all decline.     

Seasonal variation in home-range size, and habitat area requirement of the lesser spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopos minor) in southern Sweden

Seasonal variation in home-range size and habitat area requirement of lesser spotted woodpeckers (Dendrocopos minor) were studied by radio-tracking in southern Sweden for 6 years. Home-range size did not vary between age-groups or sexes, but varied with season and decreased successively from 742 ha in winter (n=10), 355 ha in early spring (n=15), 103 ha in late spring (n=22) to 43 ha during nesting (n=10). The home-range in late spring (i.e. the 3–5 weeks preceeding egg-laying) represents the defended breeding territory. This included on average 39 ha of forest utilised for foraging (range 31–46 ha, n=15). Since food availability in late spring has a significant influence on reproductive success, and mortality is highest in this period, we regard this as an estimate of the habitat area requirement. This estimate is valid primarily for birds in southern Sweden, but circumstantial evidence indicate that the area requirement may not be grossly different in other areas with different forest types. For conservation of lesser spotted woodpeckers, management should focus on a minimum of 40 ha of forest dominated by deciduous trees, which may be fragmented over a maximum of 200 ha.     

Status and distribution of the Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus on the Cabo Blanco peninsula (Western Sahara-Mauritania) in 1993–1994

The current geographical distribution of the Mediterranean monk seal Monachus monachus colony inhabiting the Cabo Blanco peninsula (Western Sahara-Mauritania) is described. Its distribution range has apparently not changed since surveys conducted in 1984–1988. Sightings of adults on the Tarf el Guerguerat coast, 20 km north of the known breeding caves, suggests the existence of other possible breeding groups further north. Two caves used by the seals are described for the first time. A review of historical trends in cave occupation by seals made it possible (1) to locate the so-called ‘maternity cave’, last reported in 1949; and (2) to establish that the colony, since its discovery, has occupied at least eight caves, five of which have collapsed. An index of population size based on counts of individuals of identified morphological types indicates that, during 1993–1994, the colony was composed of c.113–165 individuals (excluding pups), a larger number than previously assumed. Counting of seals at times of maximum haul-out is proposed as a tool to monitor population trends, although it is considered unreliable for estimating absolute numbers.     

苏州太湖流域2种水源涵养林空间结构特征与枯落物持水特性研究

为了解太湖流域水源涵养林林分空间结构与枯落物持水特性的关系,本文以太湖流域2种典型针阔混交林为对象,应用传统林分结构因子,配合4个林分结构参数进行比较,并分析2种林分下的枯落物持水特性。结果表明:冬青湿地松混交林的物种丰富度相对较高;冬青混交林空间结构稳定性高于栎树湿地松混交林;冬青湿地松林的枯落物层具更好的持水特性。水源涵养林的树种组成及林分空间结构对枯落物层的持水特性有一定影响。本研究可为今后城市水源涵养林的结构调整和森林水文循环机制的研究提供一定的科学依据。     

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in northern Greece and influence of soil resources on their colonization

Abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) in the roots of plant species was assessed in two areas in Greece in a 4-year study (2004–2007). The field experiment was conducted in a mountainous and herbaceous grassland in Greece in which both nitrogen (N)- and phosphorus (P)-limited plant community productivity. In 2006, data were also collected from a pot experiment in which 14 herbaceous plant species were grown as monocultures in P-limited soil. A factorial design of two levels of N and P was established in the mountainous field to test plant response to nutrient additions with respect to AMF colonization levels. Effects of fungicides were also investigated over year in the pot experiment and over three years in the field experiment. In addition, the effect of irrigation on AMF colonization was determined in a 1-year field study. Measurements included estimating the level of plant species specific hyphal colonization of roots according to the McGonicle et al. [McGonigle, T.P., Miller, M.H., Evans, D.G., Fairchild, D.L., Swan, J.A., 1990. A new method which gives an objective measure of colonization of roots by vesicular–arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. New Phytol. 115, 495–501] method. AMF colonization was highest in the leguminous species, intermediate in the forbs and lowest in the grasses. AMF responses to N and P additions were not uniform. P addition in the field experiment increased the colonization level of the high P demanding annual forb (non-leguminous dicot) Galium lucidum, decreased hyphal abundance of the forb Plantago lanceolata and the grass Agrostis capillaris, and appeared to have a negligible effect on the forb Prunella vulgaris and on leguminous species. Effects of N addition were influenced by P addition and were only significant in plots not enriched with P where N addition increased the AMF colonization. Irrigation increased colonization of the tested species A. capillaris and P. lanceolata but only significantly increased that of P. lanceolata. There was interannual variation in the effects of fungicides on AMF colonization, which was partly due to differences in the active ingredient and formulation used. Among the tested species, A. capillaris was the most susceptible to fungicides.     

Carbon dioxide evolution from top- and subsoil as affected by moisture and constant and fluctuating temperature

Topsoil (0–25 cm) and subsoil (30–55 cm) samples were taken from clay soil which had been cropped with reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea). After crumbling the soil into fragments <10 mm and removing visible organic debris, CO₂ evolution was measured in the laboratory at four moisture contents (17, 26, 36 and 50% H₂O for the topsoil and 16, 23, 31 and 41% for the subsoil) and at constant temperatures of −4, 0.3, 5, 15, 25, and temperatures fluctuating (weekly) between −4 and +5°C. Evolution of CO₂ after the addition of roots or stubble of P. arundinacea to the topsoil (25°C, 36% H₂O) was also studied. The CO₂ evolution increased significantly with temperature and moisture. The CO₂ evolution rate per unit of soil carbon was about two times higher for topsoil than for subsoil. Temperature fluctuation between −4 and +5°C did not enhance CO₂ evolution significantly compared with incubation at a constant 5°C and was even lower than or not significantly different from samples at 0.3°C.     

Soil organic carbon and C abundance as related to tillage, crop residue, and nitrogen fertilization under continuous corn management in Minnesota

Long-term field experiments are among the best means to predict soil management impacts on soil carbon storage. Soil organic carbon (SOC) and natural abundance ¹³C (δ¹³C) were sensitive to tillage, stover harvest, and nitrogen (N) management during 13 years of continuous corn (Zea mays L.), grown on a Haplic Chernozem soil in Minnesota. Contents of SOC in the 0–15 cm layer in the annually-tilled [moldboard (MB) and chisel (CH)] plots decreased slightly with years of corn after a low input mixture of alfalfa (Medicago sativum L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) for pasture; stover harvest had no effect. Storage of SOC in no-till (NT) plots with stover harvested remained nearly unchanged at 55 Mg ha⁻¹ with time, while that with stover returned increased about 14%. The measured δ¹³C increased steadily with years of corn cropping in all treatments; the NT with stover return had the highest increase. The N fertilization effects on SOC and δ¹³C were most evident when stover was returned to NT plots. In the 15–30 cm depth, SOC storage decreased and δ¹³C values increased with years of corn cropping under NT, especially when stover was harvested. There was no consistent temporal trend in SOC storage and δ¹³C values in the 15–30 cm depth when plots received annual MB or CH tillage. The amount of available corn residue that was retained in SOC storage was influenced by all three management factors. Corn-derived SOC in the 0–15 cm and the 15–30 cm layers of the NT system combined was largest with 200 kg N ha⁻¹ and no stover harvest. The MB and CH tillage systems did not influence soil storage of corn-derived SOC in either the 0–15 or 15–30 cm layers. The corn-derived SOC as a fraction of SOC after 13 years fell into three ranges: 0.05 for the NT with stover harvested, 0.15 for the NT with no stover harvest, and 0.09–0.10 for treatments with annual tillage; N rate had no effect on this fraction. Corn-derived SOC expressed as a fraction of C returned was positively biased when C returned in the roots was estimated from recovery of root biomass. The half-life for decomposition of the original or relic SOC was longer when stover was returned, shortened when stover was harvested and N applied, and sharply lengthened when stover was not harvested and N was partially mixed with the stover. Separating SOC storage into relic and current crop sources has significantly improved our understanding of the main and interacting effects of tillage, crop residue, and N fertilization for managing SOC accumulation in soil.     

Soil fungal population in preharvest maize ecosystem in different tillage practices in Argentina

The distribution of the soil borne fungal population in maize non-rhizospheric soil in experimental trials were studied during the harvest seasons 2000/2001 and 2001/2002. The effect of different tillage practices was evaluated. Soil samples were collected from three tillage treatments, conventional tillage, reduced tillage and no tillage, with and without grazing. The distribution of fungal propagules in different treatments was compared. Soil samples were collected from the top soil (3 cm) before planting, in the sprong. No tillage without grazing and reduced tillage with grazing had the highest densities of filamentous fungi (5.71 and 5.85 log, respectively). The mycological survey showed the presence of six genera of filamentous fungi. They were Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Cladosporium, Alternaria. The species identified from genus Aspergillus were A. flavus, A. restrictus, A. candidus, A. parasiticus and other Aspergillus spp. The species identified from genus Penicillium were P. pinophylum, P. citreonigrum, P. implicatum, P. purpurogenum, P. minioluteum, P. waksmanii, P. restrictum, P. rugulosum, P. funiculosum and P. variabile. Species from genus Fusarium were identified as F. verticillioides, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum and others Fusarium species. The isolation frequency of Aspergillus increased in the no tillage and grazing practices treatments. The data indicate that different agricultural practices impact soil inocula of principal maize toxigenic fungi in the production area. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the effect of tillage management practices on fungal populations in preharvest maize agroecosystem in Argentina.     

两种森林集水区径流量及其径流过程初步分析

研究桉树林和马尾松林集水区的径流量及其径流过程,为科学评估森林的水源涵养功能提供参考依据。于2013年8月—2014年7月运用小流域径流监测方法和自动采集数据,对桉树林和马尾松林集水区的径流量进行定位观测,并分析强降雨和连续降雨对径流过程的影响。结果表明:桉树林集水区的年径流深和径流系数分别为107.7 mm和8.2%,马尾松林的依次为319.4 mm和24.2%。在前期没有径流情况下,一次强降雨过程（降水量147.5 mm）,两种森林集水区的径流历时、径流最大值滞后于降雨峰值的时间和总径流深都存在明显差异,桉树林的分别为13.8 h,0.2 h和35.6 mm,马尾松林的依次为35.5 h,0.7 h和28.5 mm。一次连续7 d的降雨过程（降水量125.0 mm）,桉树林集水区只产生4 d径流,总径流深仅3.8 mm;马尾松林集水区则连续产生13 d径流,总径流深达10.1 mm。综上所述,马尾松林的水源涵养功能明显优于桉树林。     

Use of a population model to assess the impact of longline fishing on wandering albatross Diomedea exulans populations

An age-structured model of a wandering albatross Diomedea exulans population is developed to stimulate population trends over time, using demographic parameters from the population at Possession Island, Crozets, during 1968–1986. The simulation results portray a population decreasing at a rate of 2·29% per year, which concurs with global population trends. Sensitivity analyses of model parameters indicate that both adult and juvenile mortality are contributing to the decrease. Wandering albatross mortality is presumed to have increased as a result of deaths caused by longline fishing vessels; such deaths are likely to be relatively more frequent among young, naive birds. The model is used to investigate the potential impacts of new longline fisheries such as that for Patagonian toothfish Dissostichus eleginoides in Antarctica. Assuming longline fishing operations affect juveniles more than adults, there is a time lag of 5–10 years before further decreases in population numbers are reflected in the breeding population. Also, because wandering albatrosses are long-lived, population growth rates take approximately 30–50 years to stabilize after a perturbation. Consequently, caution must be exercised when interpreting population trends; short-term (<20 year) estimates may not provide good indications of long-term trends.     

复配杀菌剂防治平菇尖孢镰刀菌病害的效果测定

为筛选应用于平菇栽培的高效低残留杀菌剂,本试验研究了复配杀菌剂(使百功+多菌灵、使百功+克霉灵、多菌灵+克霉灵)对尖孢镰刀菌与平菇菌丝生长的影响及其在平菇栽培中的应用效果。结果表明,3种复配杀菌剂抑制尖孢镰刀菌菌丝生长的EC₅₀值分别为3.67、4.51和7.01 mg·L^-1,均显著小于对应的单药杀菌剂;3种复配杀菌剂抑制平菇菌丝生长的EC₅₀值分别为156.41、121.97和237.38 mg·L^-1,是其抑制尖孢镰刀菌菌丝生长EC₅₀值的27~43倍。在平菇栽培发酵料中使用0.1%~0.3%的复配杀菌剂使百功+克霉灵,菌丝生长速度加快,生物学效率升高;与未添加杀菌剂处理相比,污染率降低6.1~8.8个百分点;与使百功处理相比,平菇子实体中的农药残留量降低71.8%~76.6%。综上,复配杀菌剂能有效降低平菇子实体中的农药残留,其中使百功+克霉灵复配杀菌剂效果最好,是一种高效低残留的平菇枯萎病防治药剂。     

Long-term effects of lantana (Lantana spp. L.) residue additions on soil physical properties under rice–wheat cropping: I. Soil consistency, surface cracking and clod formation

Poor soil tilth is a major constraint in realizing optimum yield potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in rice (Oryza sativa L.)–wheat cropping system. The effect of long-term additions of lantana (Lantana spp. L.) biomass, a wild sage, on physical properties of a silty clay loam soil under rice–wheat cropping was studied in north-west India. Lantana was added to soil 10–15 d before puddling at 10, 20 and 30 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (fresh weight). At the end of 10th rice crop, liquid limit, plastic limit, shrinkage limit and plasticity index of soil increased significantly with lantana additions. The friability range of lantana-treated soil decreased from 8.9 to 7.8–8.2% gravimetric-moisture content, but soil became friable at relatively higher moisture content. Soil cracking changed from wide, deep cracks in hexagonal pattern to a close-spaced network of fine cracks. The cracks of sizes <5 mm increased, 10–20 mm and wider decreased, while 5–10 mm remained almost unchanged with lantana additions. The volume density of cracks decreased by 36–76% and surface area density by 19–37% compared with control. The clods of sizes <2 cm diameter increased, while 2–4 cm and 4–6 cm diameter decreased with lantana additions. The MWD of clods varied between 2.15 and 2.34 cm in lantana-treated soil as against 2.83 cm in the control. The bulk density and breaking strength of soil clods were lower in lantana-treated soil by 4–9% and 29–42% than in the control. About 23–47% less energy was required to prepare seed-bed in lantana-treated than in the control soil.