Reproductive performance of female breeder turkeys fed on maize‐soyabean diets supplemented with methionine

1. Supplemental methionine (MET) did not improve the reproductive performance of Medium White female breeder turkeys fed on maize‐soyabean diets of equal energy content, containing 100, 120 or 140 g crude protein (CP)/kg.

2. Egg production was significantly improved by feeding diets containing 120 or 140 g GP/kg compared with 100 g/kg, and egg weight was significantly improved by feeding 140 g CP/kg compared with 120 g/kg.

3. These results indicate that an amino acid(s) other than MET was limiting in diets from which hens obtained 16 g CP, 0.3 g MET and 0.6 g total sulphur amino acids (TSAA)/bird d, and that MET was not limiting at 24 g CP, 0.4 g MET and 0.8 g TSAA/bird d.     

Higher feeding diets effects on age and liveweight gain at puberty in crossbred Nelore × Hereford heifers

This study was conducted to determine the age and liveweight at puberty of 120 crossbred beef heifers submitted to four diets to achieve predetermined weight gains (kg/day): 0.5 (G500; n?=?32), 0.75 (G750; n?=?32), 1.0 (G1000; n?=?29), and 1.25 (G1250; n?=?27). Animals were classified depending on their level of crossing between Nelore (N) and Hereford (H): 25%N-75%H, 37.5%N-63.5%H, 43.7%N-56.7%H, 50%N-50%H, and 75%N-25%H. Reproductive evaluation was performed at the beginning and at the end of the experimental period by ultrasonography and hormone analysis. The average age and liveweight at puberty were 388.0?±?1.9 days and 331.4?±?1.3 kg, respectively. Animals from the 25%N-75%H group reached puberty earlier than heifers from other genetic groups supplemented with G1250 diet (P?<?0.05). Heifers with higher degree of Nelore (75%N-25%H) fed with G1000 diet showed estrus 42 days prior to mating, but only 57 % reached puberty at mating (P?<?0.05). Heifers with follicles of higher diameter reached puberty (P?<?0.05) earlier. Higher average daily weight gain showed a positive effect on follicular diameter and IGF-I level at puberty (P?<?0.01). Concentrations of GH were lower in heifers fed G1250 compared to G1000 diet (P?<?0.05). There was a significant interaction between nutritional level and insulin levels at puberty (P?<?0.01). We demonstrated the relationship between IGF-I and average daily gain on the onset of puberty in heifers. In conclusion, heifers submitted to the higher feeding level showed a higher follicular diameter and were younger at puberty.     

Influence of forage NDF level and source in growing–finishing diets on growth performance of feedlot lambs

The effect of two forage neutral detergent fiber (NDF) levels (6 vs. 9%) and two forage sources (sorghum stover vs. alfalfa hay) on growth performance was evaluated in 20 feedlot lambs (17.45?±?2.75?kg) for a 60-d feeding-period. Final longissimus area and subcutaneous fat were measured by ultrasound. There were no treatment interactions. Lambs receiving sorghum stover had greater gain efficiency (p?=?.04), estimated dietary net energy (NE; p?=?.04), longissimus area (p?=?.02) and tended to greater average daily gain (ADG; p?=?.06) than lambs fed alfalfa hay. Lambs receiving 6% forage NDF had greater ADG (p?=?.03), gain efficiency (p?=?.03) and tendency toward for dietary NE (p?=?.06) than those fed 9% forage NDF. Treatments did not influence subcutaneous fat. In conclusion, at equivalent forage NDF level, sorghum stover may be superior to alfalfa hay for feedlot lambs which may depress growth performance at 9% forage NDF in isocaloric diets including a 50:50 blend of whole and ground sorghum grain.     

Nitrogen metabolism in dairy cows fed restricted amounts of grass–clover silage supplemented with seeds from narrow-leafed lupin or pea

Twelve dairy cows in mid to late lactation were fed iso-nitrogenous diets (161 g CP/kg DM, forage:concentrate ratio 65:35) where rolled barley and coarsely ground seeds from either narrow-leafed lupin or field pea supplemented grass–clover silage. Feed allowance was individually restricted and fixed (18.8 ± 0.6 kg dry matter/day) throughout the experiment to avoid refusals. The experiment was of 2 × 2 change-over design and utilized a previous change-over experiment with 3 periods as covariate. Nitrogen balance was assessed by quantitative urine sampling and fecal spot sampling in eight cows whereas rumen metabolism was studied in four cannulated cows. Production of energy corrected milk was 24.3 kg/day with the lupin diet and 23.2 kg/day with the pea diet (P < 0.05). Daily milk fat yield was also higher (P < 0.05) with the lupin diet. Proportion of feed N excreted in milk did not differ between diets. Milk urea concentration, as well as the amounts of total urinary N and urinary urea were higher (P < 0.05) for the lupin diet, while urinary N proportion of feed N only tended (P = 0.08) to be higher with the lupin diet. N balance was lower with the lupin diet. Digestibilities of organic matter, neutral detergent fiber and crude protein did not differ between diets and neither did ruminal pools of these constituents. In addition, there were no differences between the diets with respect to the ruminal concentrations of NH₃-N and total volatile fatty acids, and only minor differences in ruminal pH and ruminal concentrations of iso-acids and α-amino-N. It is concluded that the higher fat content in lupins compared to peas is an advantage in typical Scandinavian home-grown rations and probably explains the higher milk yield in this experiment. Differences in protein utilization between lupins and peas are of small magnitude when fed ground without thermal processing. In practical feeding, ad libitum forage allowance may create response differences between lupin seeds and peas not observed in this experiment.     

The potential of replacing conventional dairy supplements with forage legume-based diets in Zimbabwe’s smallholder dairy sector

The effect of replacing commercial supplements with isoenergetic and isonitrogenous velvet bean-, cowpeaand lablab-based supplements on milk yield, milk quality and economic returns in smallholder crossbred dairy cows was investigated in the 2013 and 2014 dry seasons. Using 3 × 3 Latin square designs, nine multiparous Red Dane, Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian crosses in mid-lactation (130 ± 19 d) were offered forage legume-based supplements for 63 d at 0.5 kg per litre of milk produced. Milk quantity and quality were significantly (P < 0.05) different among supplements in both seasons. Cows fed commercial supplements had higher milk yield than cows fed forage legume supplements. Milk fat content was significantly (p < 0.05) higher in cows fed lablab-based supplements than cows fed other supplements. Milk protein, total solids and lactose content of cows fed commercial supplements was significantly (p < 0.05) higher than those fed forage legume-based supplements, although protein content was similar to cows fed lablab-based supplements. Dietary gross margins were higher for cows fed velvet beanand lablab-based supplements by 17% and 16.5%, respectively. Based on supplement, production costs per litre of milk was higher by 28% and 23% using commercial supplements compared to velvet bean and lablab supplements, respectively.     

Pre-weaning growth performance of crossbred lambs (Dorper × indigenous sheep breeds) under semi-intensive management in eastern Ethiopia

A study was conducted to assess the effect of genetic and non-genetic factors (litter size, sex of lamb, and parity of dam) on pre-weaning growth performance of crossbred lambs (75 % Dorper (DR) 25 % indigenous lambs; and 50 % Dorper 50 % indigenous lambs) under semi-intensive husbandry practices in eastern Ethiopia. Data from a total of 275 Dorper sire breed × indigenous (Blackhead Ogaden [BHO] and Hararghe Highland [HH]) crossbred lambs with different genetic group of the parental breeds were collected for three consecutive years (2009 to 2011). Pre-weaning growth performance attributes of crossbred lambs studied were birth weight, weaning weight, and pre-weaning average daily gain. Data were analyzed using the GLM procedure of SAS (2003). Breed group and non-genetic factors significantly affected pre-weaning growth performance. Lambs with 75 % Dorper and 25 % indigenous had higher (P?<?0.01) birth weight than 50 % DR and 50 % HH but similar to 50 % DR and 50 % BHO. Weaning weight and pre-weaning live weight gain were higher (P?<?0.01) for ¾DR¼BHO and ¾DR¼HH than 50 % Dorper inheritance. Single-born lambs had higher weight at birth, weaning weight, and pre-weaning average daily gain as compared to twins. Sex comparison is significant (P?<?0.05) and male lambs recorded highest pre-weaning growth performance compared to female counterparts. Parity, season, and lambing year significantly (P?<?0.01) influenced the pre-weaning growth of crossbred lambs. Therefore, it could be concluded that 50–75 % Dorper inheritance improved pre-weaning growth performance of indigenous breeds of Hararghe Highland and Blackhead Ogaden sheep. The result also suggested culling of ewes older than fourth parity to improve the pre-weaning growth performance of lambs.     

Acceptability,growth performance and nutritional status of chickens fed cassava leaf meal (CLM)–based diets

Tropical Animal Health and Production - This study evaluated the effect of feeding cassava leaf meal–based diets on feeding behavioural patterns, growth performance parameters and nutritional...     

Replacement levels of elephant grass by moist pineapple by-product silage in diets of Santa Inês crossbred sheep: performance and digestibility

The present study evaluated the effect of replacing elephant grass (EG) with moist pineapple by-product silage (PS) on the apparent digestibility, consumption of digestible nutrients and performance of 25 castrated male lambs Santa Ines crossbreds. The lambs had an initial body weight of 20.2?±?3.5 kg and were housed in individual pens in a completely randomised design with five treatments (replacement of EG by PS at five proportions of 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100 %) and five replicates during 74 days. There was no significant effect of PS replacement proportions on the intake of dry matter (DM), organic matter (OM), total carbohydrates (TC), non-fibrous carbohydrates or total digestible nutrients (TDN). The consumption of crude protein (CP) decreased linearly with the inclusion of PS in the diets. The digestibility of DM, OM and TCs as well as levels of TDN increased linearly with the addition of PS. The use of PS in the diets had no significant effect on the digestibility of CP and neutral detergent fibre corrected for ashes and protein (NDFom(n)). These results demonstrated that there was no difference in the performance of animals fed diets with or without PS.     

Effects of dietary supply of arginine on urinary orotic acid excretion,growth performance and blood parameters in growing mink (Mustela vison) kits fed low‐protein diets

Effects of dietary arginine levels of 1.2%, 1.7% and 2.2% of dry matter (DM) (4.8 g/16 g N, 6.4 g/16 g N and 8.0 g/16 g N, respectively) and excess dietary lysine (6.5% in DM, 22 g/16 g N) were investigated in male mink kits fed low‐protein diets supplemented with a mixture of amino acids in the growing period during 4 weeks in July‐August. Urinary excretion of orotic acid, growth performance, feed consumption, plasma concentrations of ammonia (NH₃), orotic acid, urea and glucose were studied. The results showed that arginine is an essential nutrient for mink kits in the growing period and that excess dietary lysine antagonizes arginine. An arginine supply of 2.2% of DM (8.0 g/16 g N) resulted in minimum urinary excretion of orotic acid and a supply of 1.7% of DM (6.4 g/16 g N) prevented increased plasma concentrations of NH₃. Growth performance was negatively affected by the low protein level in all diets. The plasma concentrations of orotic acid, urea and glucose were not affected by the dietary levels of arginine.     

The effect of vitamin E on growth performance and meat quality in broilers given diets containing distillers’ dried grain with solubles (DDGS)

1. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of vitamin E (VE, α-tocopherol acetate) on growth performance and meat quality of broilers fed on diets containing maize distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS).

2. A total of 360 one-d-old broilers were randomly assigned to 6 groups. Each group comprised 6 replicates of 10 broilers. Broilers were allocated to 1 of 6 diets and fed for 49?d in a 3?×?2 factorial design. The dietary treatments included three concentrations of DDGS (0, 10 or 20%) and two concentrations of VE (0 or 200?mg/kg).

3. Diets containing 20% DDGS decreased the growth phase and average daily feed intake, demonstrating that small amounts of DDGS affected feed intake in broilers and that an excess of DDGS was not conducive to feed intake.

4. Different dietary concentrations of DDGS did not significantly improve colour, drip loss, cooking loss, or shear force. Supplementation with 200?mg/kg VE significantly reduced cooking loss and shear force and improved colour.

5. In conclusion, supplementation with DDGS at 10% and/or α-tocopherol acetate at 200?mg/kg had positive effects on growth performance and meat quality in broilers.     

Effect of dietary supplementation of probiotic on the performance of F1 crossbred (Rhode Island red male × Fayoumi female) cockerels

A study was conducted to evaluate four different probiotic levels, using diets supplemented with 0 (control), 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3% or 0.5% of organic-green culture-zs (probiotic). The cockerels of 6-weeks old were randomly divided into 15 separate floor pens each comprising 25 birds and three pens (replicates) per treatment group following completely randomized design. At 12 weeks of age BW and feed to gain ratio (FCR) were determined. At the end of 42 days of experiment, nine birds per treatment were sacrificed to evaluate carcass characteristics, abdominal fat contents and the internal organs. Blood haemato-biochemical parameters were also determined. Haemagglutination inhibition antibody titres against Newcastle disease virus and lymphoid organs weight/body weight ratio were also determined. The BW of birds fed 0.2-0.5% of probiotic was significantly greater than birds fed without probiotic diet. Similarly, better FCR was observed in birds those fed diets of high level of probiotic. There was no mortality recorded at higher levels of probiotics. Differences in carcass characteristics, organs weight, meat composition, haematological values and HDL and LDL concentrations among all the diets were non-significant. However, abdominal fat contents reduced significantly in supplemented groups in relation to control and cholesterol contents were reduced significantly in 0.3% or 0.5% supplemented groups in relation to control. Feeding levels of 0.2-0.5% of probiotic, did positively affect the immune system within the parameters measured. It may be concluded that performance, blood chemistry and immunity against disease in cockerels could be maintained when supplementing 0.3% or 0.5% level of probiotic incorporated in crossbred cockerel's diets.     

Effects of level of concentrate supplementation on growth performance of Arsi-Bale and Boer?×?Arsi-Bale male goats consuming low-quality grass hay

Eighteen Arsi-Bale (local) and 18 Boer?×?Arsi-Bale (crossbred) male goats, initially approximately 10 months of age, were used in a 12-week experiment to investigate potential interactions between genotype and nutritional plane in growth performance, carcass and skin characteristics, and mass of non-carcass components. Grass hay (6.7% crude protein and 71.9% neutral detergent fiber) was consumed ad libitum supplemented with 150, 300, or 450 g/day (dry matter; low, moderate, and high, respectively) of a concentrate mixture (50% wheat bran, 49% noug seed cake, and 1% salt). Initial body weight was 20.7 and 14.0 kg for crossbred and local goats, respectively (SE = 0.36). Hay dry matter intake was greater (P < 0.05) for crossbred vs. local goats (461 and 429 g/day) and similar among concentrate levels (438, 444, and 451 g/day for high, moderate, and low, respectively; SE = 4.7). Average daily gain was greater (P < 0.05) for crossbred than for local goats (36.6 and 20.8 g) and differed (P < 0.05) among each level of concentrate (43.7, 29.6, and 12.8 g for high, moderate, and low, respectively). Dressing percentage was similar between genotypes (41.1% and 41.1% live body weight for crossbred and local goats, respectively; SE = 0.59) and greater (P < 0.05) for high vs. low (43.5% vs. 38.7% live body weight). Carcass weight differed (P < 0.05) between genotypes (9.23 and 6.23 kg for crossbred and local goats, respectively) and high and low (8.80 and 6.66 kg, respectively). Carcass concentrations of physically dissectible lean and fat were similar between genotypes and high and low concentrate levels. There were few differences between genotypes or concentrate levels in other carcass characteristics such as color and skin properties. Relative to empty body weight, the mass of most non-carcass tissues and organs did not differ between genotypes. However, the low concentrate-level mass of omental-mesenteric fat was greater (P < 0.05) for local vs. crossbred goats (1.06% vs. 0.54% empty body weight, respectively). In conclusion, growth performance and carcass weight advantages from crossing Boer and Arsi-Bale goats were similar with a low-quality basal grass hay diet regardless of level of supplemental concentrate.     

Effect of dietary α -tocopherol concentration on performance and some immune responses in broiler chickens fed on diets containing oils from different sources

1. An investigation was carried out into the effects of dietary α-tocopherol (α-T) concentration and source of supplemental oil on performance, activity of anti-oxidative enzymes and some immune responses in broilers from day-old to 41 d of age. 2. Three dietary concentrations of α-T (10, 50 and 100 mg/kg) with three sources of supplemental oil (sunflower - SFO, palm - PMO and safflower - SAO) were provided using a 3 × 3 experimental design. 3. Body weight gain and food conversion efficiency were not affected by either interaction or concentrations of α-T and sources of oil in diet. 4. Concentrations of total protein, globulin, triglycerides and cholesterol in sera increased significantly with dietary α-T concentration irrespective of the source of oil. Significantly higher concentration of serum albumin was evident in broilers fed on the SFO-based diet and the concentration of globulin was higher in groups fed on those diets containing PMO and SAO. 5. The lipid peroxidation (LP), measured as MDA release, decreased with the concentration of α-T in a dose-related manner with SFO- and SAO-based diets, although not with the PMO-based diet. With different oil sources, LP was significantly lower with the PMO-based diet compared to the others. Activities of glutathione peroxidase and RBC catalase increased and heterophil: lymphocyte ratio was reduced with concentration of α-T for each source of oil tested. 6. Assays for humoral and cell-mediated immune responses indicated no effect of the source of dietary supplemental oil or interaction, although an increasing concentration of dietary α-T improved cell-mediated immune responses. 7. It is concluded that sunflower oil, palm oil and safflower oil can be used as sources of oil for broiler diets without having any effect on performance, immune responses or the activity of anti-oxidizing enzymes. Higher concentrations of dietary α-tocopherol (50 or 100 mg/kg) reduced lipid peroxidation activity and enhanced activities of anti-oxidative enzymes, they also improved the cell-mediated immune responses in commercial broilers.     

The effect of non-genetic factors on the reproductive performance of Sanga and Friesian × Sanga crossbred dairy cattle breeds kept under hot and humid environment

A study was conducted to assess the effect of non-genetic factors on the reproductive performance of Sanga and Friesian?×?Sanga crossbred dairy cattle kept at Amrahia Dairy Farm, Ghana. Records on 66 crossbred Friesian?×?Sanga and 105 purebred Sanga cattle from 2005 to 2012 were used. The effect of sex of calf (male or female), season of calving (major, minor and dry), year of calving (2005–2012) and parity (first to third) on birthweight, calving interval and age at first calving were determined. The data were analyzed using the general linear model procedures of GenStat (Discovery Edition). The effect of parity of dam, year of calving, season of calving and sex of calf were considered as fixed effects for evaluating the different reproductive traits. Data on calving and conception rates over the period were 74.3 and 76.1 %, respectively. The overall mean values for birthweight, age at first calving and calving interval obtained were 23.9?±?1.5 and 22.8?±?1.4 kg, 38.8?±?2.5 and 40.2?±?2.4 months and 390.8?±?12.5 and 413.6?±?12.1 days for the crossbred and Sanga, respectively. It was observed that all the major determinants of reproductive performance studied apart from birthweight were significantly influenced by year of birth, parity, season of calving and sex.     

Growth performance of Hubbard × Cobb 500 and Ross × Ross 708 male broilers fed diets varying in apparent metabolizable energy from 14 to 28 days of age

The cost of energy-contributing ingredients has increased over the last several years. Defining minimum dietary energy specifications for broilers is a strategy to mitigate high diet cost. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of diets with graded concentrations of AME_n fed to Hubbard × Cobb 500 (experiment 1) and Ross × Ross 708 (experiment 2) male broiler chicks from 14 to 28 d of age. Both experiments were identical in experimental procedures with the exception of genetic strain. Broilers were fed a common corn-soybean meal-based starter diet from 1 to 13 d of age. At 14 d of age, dietary treatments were provided with 1 of 6 concentrations of AME_n (3,000, 3,030, 3,060, 3,090, 3,120, and 3,150 kcal/kg). In experiment 1, BW gain, feed intake, and FCR of Hubbard × Cobb 500 broilers decreased linearly with increasing AME_n. Linear broken-line response of FCR was estimated at 3,062 kcal of AME_n/kg based on broken-line methodology. In experiment 2, Ross × Ross 708 broilers did not respond to graded concentrations of energy, as indicated by linear and quadratic regression of BW gain, feed intake, caloric conversion, and FCR data. Therefore, Hubbard × Cobb 500 male broilers respond to AME_n from 14 to 28 d of age and may be fed diets formulated at 3,062 kcal of AME_n/kg without loss of performance. Conversely, growth performance of Ross × Ross 708 male broilers was not affected by varying AME_n (3,000 to 3,150 kcal/kg) from 14 to 28 d of age. In addition, the response to AME_n may not be as pronounced with the modern broiler compared with broilers used in previous research.     

Ruminal degradation kinetics of diets with different lipid sources and its influence on intake and milk yield of early lactation crossbred Holstein × Gir cows

Tropical Animal Health and Production - The emergence of tick-borne diseases has been reported as a serious problem in public health worldwide and many aspects of its epidemiology and effects on...     

Effects of oregano essential oil with or without feed enzymes on growth performance,digestive enzyme,nutrient digestibility,lipid metabolism and immune response of broilers fed on wheat–soybean meal diets

1.?The study was conducted to determine the effects of dietary supplementation of enzyme and oregano essential oil at two levels, alone or together, on performance, digestive enzyme, nutrient digestibility, lipid metabolism and immune response of broilers fed on wheat–soybean meal based diets.

2.?The following dietary treatments were used from d 0 to 21. Diet 1 (control, CONT): a commercial diet containing no enzyme or oregano essential oil, diet 2 (ENZY): supplemented with enzyme, diet 3 (EO250): supplemented with essential oil at 250 mg/kg feed, diet 4 (EO500): supplemented with essential oil at 500 mg/kg feed, diet 5 (ENZY + EO250): supplemented with enzyme and essential oil at 250 mg/kg, and diet 6 (ENZY + EO500): supplemented with enzyme and essential oil at 500 mg/kg.

3.?Birds fed on diets containing ENZY, EO250 and ENZY + EO250 had significantly higher weight gain than those given CONT diet from d 0 to 7. No significant effects on feed intake, feed conversion ratio, mortality, organ weights except for jejunum weight and intestinal lengths was found with either enzyme or essential oil, alone or in combination, over the 21-d growth period. The supplementation of essential oil together with enzyme decreased jejunum weight compared with essential oil alone.

4.?Supplementation with enzyme significantly decreased viscosity and increased dry matter of digesta, but did not alter pH of digesta. There was no effect of essential oil alone at either concentration on viscosity, dry matter or pH of digesta. A significant decrease in viscosity of digesta appeared when essential oil was used with together enzyme.

5.?The supplementation of essential oil at both levels with or without enzyme significantly increased chymotrypsin activity in the digestive system, and improved crude protein digestibility.

6.?The higher concentration of essential oil with and without enzyme significantly increased serum total cholesterol concentrations. No significant effect on immune response was found with either enzyme or essential oil, alone or together.

7.?Enzymes and essential oil had different modes of actions. The supplementation of enzyme with essential oil in diets is likely more effective in view of performance, nutrient digestibility, enzyme activities and immune system.     

Effect of energy density of diet on growth performance of Thai indigenous (50% crossbred) Korat chickens from hatch to 42 days of age

The aim of the current study was to investigate the effect of the energy density of diet on the growth performance of Thai indigenous crossbred (50%) chickens known as Korat chicken (KRC). A total of 1440 mixed-sex KRC (720 birds in each phase) were randomly allocated to 4 dietary treatments containing 2750, 2900, 3050, or 3200 kcal ME/kg diet with 6 replicates of each treatment in a completely randomized design. The experimental diets were tested from hatch to 21 days and from 22 to 42 days of age. In both age groups, body weight gain was not affected (P >?0.05) by the ME density of the diets. Feed intake however decreased with increasing (metabolizable energy) ME (P <?0.05), thereby significantly improving the feed conversion ratio (FCR). Broken-line analysis was performed to estimate the ME content of feed to obtain minimum FCR and maximum protein efficiency ratio (PER) values. Minimum FCR and maximum PER values were found when the diet contained 3000 kcal ME/kg from hatch to 21 days of age and 3175 kcal ME/kg from 22 to 42 days of age, respectively, using diets containing 7.5 and 6.6 g of protein/100 kcal ME, respectively. In conclusion, we established that the ME requirements of KRC from hatch to 21 days and 22 to 42 days of age were 3000 and 3175 kcal/kg, respectively.     

Effect of different roughages sources on performance,milk composition,fatty acid profile,and milk cholesterol content of feedlot feed crossbred cows (Holstein × Zebu)

Tropical Animal Health and Production - The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of different forage sources in diets for feedlot dairy cows and their implications on production,...