Thermal-softening properties and cooling set of water-saturated bamboo within proportional limit

Thermal-softening properties and cooling set of water-saturated bamboo were investigated using stressrelaxation measurements in heating and cooling processes, followed by residual deflection measurement. In the heating process, an obvious decrease in relative relaxation modulus due to thermal-softening of lignin was found at around 60°C. On the other hand, no clear change in the relative relaxation modulus was recognized in the cooling process. After the cooling process, about 65% and 75% of residual set was measured when the specimen was loaded on the epidermis and endodermis side, respectively. Also, residual set depended on the maximum temperature reached in the heating process and the unloaded temperature in the cooling process. From these results, it was deduced that the glass transition of lignin from the rubbery to glassy state is important to fix the deformation. Comparing thermal-softening behavior between bamboo and wood, the relative relaxation modulus of wood decreased steeply at higher temperatures than for bamboo. On the other hand, while about 75% of residual set was also found for wood, almost the same as for bamboo, the recovery of deformation with time was larger for wood than for bamboo. Part of this article was presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Zairyou Society, Okayama, May 2004     

Characteristics of bamboo tissue in relation to cooling set

To clarify the effects of tissue and structure of bamboo on its bending properties and set by cooling (bent at 90°C and cooled to 20°C with bending), the effects of set in bast-fiber-rich (B_fib) and parenchyma-cell-rich (B_par) specimens were investigated with regard to their dynamic viscoelastic properties, chemical composition, and recovery from deformation with time. The results are summarized as follows: (1) while no clear effect of the proportion of parenchyma cells and bast fibers on residual set immediately after cooling was found, the relative recovery from the deformation with time for B_fib was larger than that for B_par. (2) Slightly higher lignin content and a-cellulose were seen in B_fib than in B_par. (3) The peak temperature of loss modulus (E″) found for B_par, which was attributable to micro-Brownian motion of lignin, was obviously lower than that for B_fib. This was considered to be due to differences in the degree of condensation of lignin or higher-order structure. From these results, it was deduced that the bastfiber-rich specimen, which showed a higher peak temperature regarding thermal softening of lignin allowing the induction of insufficient thermal-softening in the range of 20° to 90°C, caused a larger recovery from deformation with time. Part of this report was presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society in Akita, August 2006     

Cross-sectional cutting of bamboo with a pair of shearing blades for bamboo cube production

As a new use of bamboo, bamboo cubes may be useful as a shot-blast material for surface treatments. However, a suitable processing technique for bamboo cubes has not been established. In this study, to obtain basic knowledge regarding the processing technology for bamboo cubes, we installed shearing blades (upper and lower blades) in a universal testing machine to test cross-sectional shearing of bamboo. The shearing force generated in this shearing was composed of a vertical component (F _v), a forward component (F _f), and a side component (F _s). This shearing force (F _v, F _f, and F _s) and the machining accuracy were investigated under various processing conditions. The shearing force became larger as the thickness of bamboo increased. In particular, F _v showed a tendency to increase rapidly. Changes in the shear angle of the upper blade had a remarkable influence on F _v. This result suggests that the shearing force could be greatly decreased by adjusting the shear angle. The shearing force within bamboo of 3mm in thickness was almost unaffected by the blade angle, and the change of shearing force with increasing clearance was almost indiscernible. It was clearly demonstrated that a large number of bamboo cubes could be made when the shear angle was large and cross-sectional shearing was performed from the bark side. However, a consequence of a large shear angle is that burr area increases. Part of this article was presented at the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Fukuoka, March 2003     

Bending creep performances of three-ply cross-laminated woods made with five species

To improve the performance of cross-laminated woods, 30 types of three-ply parallel-laminated and cross-laminated woods were prepared from five species with various densities and shear compliances in cross section, and their bending creep performances were investigated on the basis of our previous research in cross-laminated wood made with sugi (Japanese cedar). The creep deformation perpendicular to the grain was decreased by cross laminating. The creep deformation perpendicular to the grain of parallel-laminated woods (P_⊥ type), that perpendicular to the grain of face laminae of cross-laminated woods (C_⊥ type), and also that parallel to the grain of face laminae of cross-laminated woods (C_║ type) tended to decrease with increasing density of species used for perpendicular-direction lamina. It was found that the extent of the decrease was greater in creep deformation than in initial deformation. The degrees of anisotropy for both deformations of laminated wood were markedly decreased by cross laminating. The extent of the decrease was much greater in creep deformation than in initial deformation and considerably smaller in buna with higher density than in sugi with lower density. The measured values of initial deformation and creep deformation of C_⊥ type were almost equal to the calculated values obtained from the measured values of parallel-laminated woods, whereas the measured values of both deformations of C_║ type were much greater than their calculated values and increased markedly with increasing shear compliance in cross section of perpendicular-direction lamina used for core. The ratios of the average of measured values to the calculated value of C_║ type ranged from 1.05 (katsura) to 1.50 (sugi) in initial deformation and from 1.30 (katsura) to 3.69 (sugi) in creep deformation. This result can be explained as the effect of deflection caused by shear force.     

Influence of span/depth ratio on the measurement of mode II fracture toughness of wood by end-notched flexure test

The influence of the span/depth ratio when measuring the mode II fracture toughness of wood by endnotched flexure (ENF) tests was examined. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.) was used for the specimens. The ENF tests were conducted by varying the span/depth ratios; and the fracture toughness at the beginning of crack propagation G_IIc was calculated by two equations that require the load-deflection compliance or Young's modulus. Additionally, the influence of the span/ depth ratio on the load-deflection compliance was analyzed by Timoshenko's bending theory in which additional deflection caused by the shearing force is taken into account. The following results were obtained: (1) When the span/depth ratio was small, the fracture toughness calculated with the data of load-deflection compliance was large. In contrast, the fracture toughness calculated with the equation containing Young's modulus tended to be constant. (2) In the small span/depth ratio range, the load-deflection compliance was estimated to be larger than that predicted by Timoshenko's bending theory. (3) To obtain the proper fracture toughness of wood with a single load-deflection relation, the span/depth ratio should be larger than that determined in several standards for the simple bending test method of wood, 12:16.     

Bending characteristics of bamboo (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phyllostachys pubescens</Emphasis>) with respect to its fiber–foam composite structure

The bending properties of split bamboo culm were compared with those of spruce and beech wood specimens. The bamboo allowed large flexural deformation since its outer layer retains the tensile stress while the softer inner layer undergoes large compressive deformation. The results suggested that the combination of the fiber-rich outer part and the compressible inner part was responsible for the flexural ductility of split bamboo. To clarify the compressible nature of the inner part of bamboo, the longitudinal surfaces of the bamboo and wood specimens were microscopically observed before and after a large longitudinal compression. Although the wood specimens showed serious and localized buckling, the inner part of the bamboo specimens showed no such visible buckling. In the latter case, the foam-like parenchyma cells absorbed the large compressive deformation by their microscopic buckling and simultaneously, the alignment of sclerenchyma fibers was maintained by the surrounding parenchyma matrix. The flexural elasticity of the bamboo was compared to that of the wood in respect of remaining strain during cyclic bending tests. No clear difference was recognized between their remaining strains. This fact indicated that the bamboo was not so flexible elastically, although its fiber–foam combination and intelligent fiber distribution improve flexural ductility.     

木工字梁的挠度计算方法探讨

对木工字梁的挠度进行了公式推导、试验、计算和验证分析。结果表明，考虑剪切变形时，实测挠度值与预测挠度值非常接近；忽略剪切变形时，实测值和预测值相差非常大。理论和实测证明了在计算木工字梁挠度时剪切变形是不可忽略的。采用试验方法可以得到木工字梁的EI和K值，其可用于准确预测木工字梁的挠度，为木工字梁挠度计算和预测提供了一种比较简单的方法。     

浸渍塑化杨木单板顺纹弯曲性能研究

本研究以酚醛树脂为浸渍液,杨木单板为木材试样,对经浸渍塑化处理的杨木单板进行三点弯曲试验,探索了木/竹复合层合板的组分材料--塑化杨木单板受不同压力时的顺纹弯曲弹性性能,并分析了其与塑化压力间的关系.结果表明,塑化杨木单板的静曲模量和静曲强度与塑化压力呈非线性关系.通过对杨木单板试验研究,为木材/竹材复合材料制造过程中的结构设计和生产工艺提供一定的理论依据和基本思路,并对产品的设计、组织现场生产和产品质量评估提供一定的参考.     

Deformation under a repetition of moisturizing and drying of bamboo subjected to a set in bending

The aim of this study was to elucidate the mechanisms of deformation change of bamboo set during bending with repeated moisturizing and drying. Deformation was represented by the set ratio, defined as the camber height normalized by the initial value of the fixed set. Susceptibility to deformation from moisture changes was estimated by the slope of the plot of the set ratio versus the moisture content. The set ratio decreased gradually during the repetition of moisturizing and drying, a property consistent with general wood materials. When the specimens were previously extracted in hot water, the set ratio increased but the slope did not change. On the other hand, a previous thermal treatment at more than 230°C or a set at less than 60°C affected both the set ratio and the slope: The set ratio decreased, and the slope increased. It is known that at 60°C hemicellulose starts to soften and at 230° C thermal degradation occurs. Thus, hemicellulose may play a role in the deformation properties of bamboo set during bending.Part of this report was presented at the 50th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, April 2000, Kyoto     

Theoretical and experimental deflections of glued laminated timber beams made from a tropical hardwood

Abstract

Nondestructive testing (NDT) can play an important role in improving the quality and reliability of tropical hardwood as an engineering material. By means of these methods, the stiffness of the material can be determined and the information used to improve its structural performance. Although, it is a usual approach for qualifying the material used to manufacture engineered wood products made mainly from softwoods, it is not so common for tropical hardwoods. Additionally, the lack of information regarding properties of glulam beam made from these kinds of wood is evident. In this context, the paper aimed at evaluating the theoretical and experimental deflection of glulam beams made from the Brazilian hardwood louro-vermelho (Sextonia rubra). Initially, the stiffness of each lamina was determined nondestructively using transverse vibration method (E _dtv), which has been demonstrated to be the most suitable method for this wood species. Then, ten 5-lamina glulam beams were assembled according to descending lamina E _dtv values. The experimental evaluation was performed using a four-point bending schedule. In general, the theoretical values of deflection were 2% higher than the experimental ones. The transverse vibration showed to be a suitable method to both measure lamina stiffness and predict glulam beam deflection.     

分层剪切理论用于分析杨木-秸秆层合梁弯曲问题的研究

针对杨木—秸秆层合梁的弯曲问题,利用分层剪切理论对其变形和强度进行了分析。并将分析结果与经典理论、一阶和高阶剪切变形理论的结果进行了比较。结果表明,分层剪切变形理论用于分析杨木—秸秆层合梁弯曲问题,不但具有理论价值,而且也具有实际应用意义。     

Bending and shear properties of compressed Sitka spruce

We examined the bending and shear properties of compressed wood using small and clear specimens of Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.). For measuring the bending properties, three-point bending tests were conducted under the span/depth ratio of 14, which is standardized in the American Society for Testing and Materials [ASTM D143-94 (2005a)] and Japanese Industrial Standards [JIS Z2101-94 (1994)]. In the bending test, the load, deflection at the midspan, and strain at the bottom of the midspan were simultaneously measured, and Young’s modulus and bending strength were obtained by elementary beam theory. For obtaining the shear modulus and shear strength, asymmetric four-point bending tests were conducted using the specimens with rectangular and side-grooved cross sections, respectively, and the influence of the compression ratio on the shear properties was examined. The results are summarized as follows: (1) Young’s modulus increased with increasing compression ratio when it was determined by the load–strain relation. Nevertheless, this tendency was rather obscured when Young’s modulus was determined by the load–deflection relation. Hence, it is preferable that Young’s modulus is measured from the load–strain relation. (2) The shear modulus in the longitudinal–tangential plane was maximum at the compression ratio of 50%, whereas that in the longitudinal–radial plane was minimum at the compression ratio of 50%. (3) The influence of the compression on the bending and shear strength ratio was not significant.     

碳纤维增强聚合物 重组竹复合材的弯曲力学性能

重组竹已广泛应用于室内高档装饰、园林景观、室外防腐地板等领域,但重组竹的弹性模量比较小,为钢材的1/7~1/5,应用于建筑领域时难以充分发挥其自身高强度的特性。针对重组竹刚度较小的问题,提出一种重组竹板和碳纤维增强聚合物(CFRP)厚板嵌合粘接的新型重组竹复合材料,采用三点弯曲试验和有限元仿真方法,对CFRP 重组竹复合试件的失效模式、荷载 位移关系、应变曲线、胶层界面剥离影响等进行了研究。结果表明:重组竹试件失效模式是跨中位置处拉伸区域竹纤维断裂,且出现若干水平分层破坏,CFRP 重组竹复合试件的失效模式是CFRP与重组竹层间胶层出现大面积剥离;CFRP 重组竹复合试件的变形过程分为线弹性阶段和界面破坏阶段;CFRP可以明显提高重组竹梁的弹性模量和静曲强度,复合试件弹性模量是重组竹试件的2.33~2.94倍,静曲强度是重组竹试件的1.49~1.58倍;胶层界面剥离是CFRP 重组竹复合试件失效的重要因素,胶层界面剥离对复合试件的应变分布和挠度都有较大影响,完全剥离后试件的挠度是未剥离时的3.09倍。     

基于弯曲挺度法的缠绕用薄竹篾柔性表征

利用竹材的高柔性制造的竹缠绕复合材料是竹材创新利用的革命性产品。深入研究竹材柔性表征方法、评价指标和内在机理可为定向仿生制备高性能竹缠绕复合材料和优化竹缠绕管道工艺提供理论指导。探索弯曲挺度法表征缠绕用薄竹篾柔性的适用性,比较竹材维管束梯度结构和木材木射线组织微观结构差异对竹、木材柔性的影响机制。结果表明:弯曲挺度法适用于缠绕用薄竹篾的柔性表征,该法可快速、准确地获得不同竹篾薄层的柔度。适宜的测试条件为:跨厚比不小于100,加载角速率为600~1800(°)/min。竹材柔性具有梯度性:从竹黄到竹青,随着纤维比量增加,竹篾(50 mm×5 mm×1 mm)柔度从2.92×10-3 mN-1·m-1降低至1.07×10-3 mN-1·m-1,竹材柔性降低。利用混合定律获得竹材维管束和薄壁细胞的弯曲模量和柔度(厚1 mm)理论值分别为0.365 GPa、28.82 GPa和3.284×10-2 mN-1·m-1、0.42×10-3 mN-1·m-1。在相同含水率、尺寸和密度下,竹、木材比柔度排序为竹黄侧>竹青侧>木材,木材柔性低是横向木射线组织限制其柔性变形所引起的。     

小径级竹材抗弯性能测试方法

探究小径级竹材（胸高直径50 mm以下）的抗弯性能实验方法，充分发掘小径级竹材的性能，为小径级竹材的材性研究和工业加工等提供技术支撑，以扩大小径级竹材的用途，提高其利用价值。实验以箬竹、早园竹、苦竹、水竹和笔竿竹5种小径级竹材为研究对象，利用三点弯曲法与四点弯曲法分别测定了不同长径比（试件长度与其直径之比）试样的抗弯弹性模量和抗弯强度，以测试数据的标准差、标准误差和变异系数为评价依据，分析不同长径比的试样和加压弯曲方式对实验结果的影响。结果表明：就加压方式而言，当测试抗弯弹性模量时，三点加压弯曲法优于四点加压弯曲法；就试样长径比而言，长径比为12的试件更适于测试小径级竹材的抗弯弹性模量和抗弯强度。因此，当测试小径级竹材抗弯性能时，宜采用三点加压弯曲方式、长径比为12的试样并按照一定的流程进行操作。     

Compression behaviors of acetylated wood in organic liquids. Part I. Compression in equilibrium conditions

The radial compression behaviors of acetylated cedar wood were measured in various liquids. The compressive Young’s modulus (E) of acetylated wood was reduced by soaking in water, toluene, and acetone, but it was always greater than that of water-swollen unmodified wood at the same swelling level. The behaviors of acetone-swollen unmodified wood were similar to those of acetylated wood rather than those of water-swollen unmodified wood. These results indicated that the swelling of hydrophobic wood components had a lesser influence on the E of wood than the water-swelling of unmodified hydrophilic components. After large compression (ε > 45%), a part of the strain remained unrecovered because of irreversible mechanical deformation. Since the remaining strain was smaller in the wood specimens indicating greater stress relaxation, it was assumed that the viscoelastic deformation of amorphous matrix components is important for lesser irreversible deformation and effective shape recovery of wood. In contrast with water-swollen unmodified wood, the acetylated wood and acetone-swollen unmodified wood exhibited greater shape recovery despite their relatively higher E. This suggested that the swelling of hydrophobic wood components reduced the viscosity of the matrix rather than its elasticity, resulting in more effective shape recovery with lesser softening.     

Bending strength and toughness of heat-treated wood

The load-deflection curve for static bending and the force-time curve for impact bending of heat-treated wood were examined in detail. The effect of oxygen in air was also investigated. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.) was heated for 0.5–16.0h at a temperature of 160°C in nitrogen gas or air. The dynamic Young's modulus was measured by the free-free flexural vibration test, the static Young's modulus and work needed for rupture by the static bending test, and the absorbed energy in impact bending by the impact bending test. The results obtained were as follows: (1) The static Young's modulus increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. (2) The bending strength increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. (3) The work needed for rupture decreased steadily as the heating time increased. It decreased more in nitrogen than in air. It is thought that heat-treated wood was more brittle than untreated wood in the static bending test because W₁₂ was reduced by the heat treatment. This means that the main factors contributing to the reduction of the work needed for rupture were viscosity and plasticity, not elasticity. (4) The absorbed energy in impact bending increased at the initial stage of the heat treatment and decreased later. It decreased more in air than in nitrogen. It was concluded that heat-treated wood became more brittle in the impact bending test becauseI ₁₂ andI ₂₃ were reduced by the heat treatment.     

Measurement of the shear modulus of wood by asymmetric four-point bending tests

We conducted asymmetric four-point bending tests of wood and obtained the shear moduli on the basis of Timoshenko's theory of bending. Akamatsu (Japanese red pine,Pinus densiflora D. Don) and shioji (Japanese ash,Fraxinus spaethiana Lingelsh.) were used for the tests. Asymmetric four-point bending tests were undertaken by varying the depth/span ratios; and Young's modulus and the shear modulus were calculated by Timoshenko's bending theory. Independent of the asymmetric bending tests, we also conducted three-point bending tests, free-freeflexural vibration tests, and numerical calculations by the finite element method. Young's and shear moduli obtained by these methods were compared with those derived from the asymmetric bending tests. Based on these comparisons, we concluded that the shear modulus can be properly obtained by the asymmetric four-point bending tests when the span is 20 times larger than the depth.     

竹木复合材料的研究

竹木复合材所用原料为毛竹、杨木夹板.其中,组坯方式按年份分为两年、三年和四年三种,毛竹经过碾压机碾压成竹帘后再与杨木夹板进行混合铺装.本实验主要研究不同年份、不同摆放方向和不同厚度的竹帘对竹木复合材的抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量和平面抗拉强度的影响,结果表明,抗弯强度、抗弯弹性模量受年份和竹帘厚度的影响比平面抗拉强度所受的影响要小;9mm竹帘的竹木复合材料的平面抗拉强度受不同年份竹材的影响明显.     

Compressive deformation of wood impregnated with low molecular weight phenol formaldehyde (PF) resin III: effects of sodium chlorite treatment

To obtain high-strength phenol–formaldehyde (PF) resin-impregnated compressed wood at low pressing pressure, we investigated the effects of sodium chlorite (NaClO₂) treatment on wood prior to low molecular weight PF resin impregnation. Sawn veneers of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) were treated with 2% aqueous NaClO₂ solution at 45°C for 12 h to remove lignin, and the process was repeated up to four times, resulting in weight loss of 21%. NaClO₂ treatment has shown considerable potential for high compression of PF resin-impregnated wood at low pressing pressure, especially after adding moisture to a content of 10%–11%. This deformation is further enhanced during pressure holding by creep deformation. The density, Young’s modulus, and bending strength of PF resin-impregnated veneer laminated composites that were treated with NaClO₂ four times and compressed at 1 MPa, reached 1.15 g/cm³, 27 GPa, and 280 MPa, respectively. The values in untreated PF resin-impregnated wood reached 0.8 g/cm³, 16 GPa, and 165 MPa, respectively.