Land use choices in a changing world

The primary factors which are likely to mould future non-urban land use patterns in Australia are identified. Over the past three decades the rate of increase in land productivity in Australia has been higher than for any other OECD country. Land degradation does not appear to have seriously threatened agricultural output over the last 45 years. However, there is cause for concern that land degradation, attributable to past activities, may only now be exerting a significant impact on productivity in some regions. Many of the services provided by natural resources have been underpriced; consequently, there has been a bias in agricultural research towards technologies that enhance on-site productivity, but which impose excessive external social costs. Underpricing of native trees from state-owned and managed forests appears to have caused excessive exploitation of these forests and lowered the establishment of softwood and hardwood plantations. Many important land use and land cover issues remain unresolved in Australia's rangelands, including questions relating to the optimum grazing pressures, the role of fires in the suppression of unpalatable shrubs and appropriate management strategies for controlling numbers of large kangaroos and rabbits and protecting the natural habitat of threatened species of native animals. The riparian zone, which acts as a crucial buffer between rivers and their catchments, has been one of the most neglected environments in Australia, possibly because river banks, floodplains and wetlands do not fit neatly into the category of land or water. It is widely accepted that the aboriginal peoples must be involved in seeking to achieve the sustainable use of our natural resources. How to achieve the appropriate participation and involvement of aboriginal peoples is a problem that is yet to be fully resolved. In many respects, renewable natural resource systems in Australia are unique. Knowledge creation and application will be a most important resource for the future management of our agricultural forestry and natural resource systems. The solutions to many of the major renewable resource problems do not depend on technology alone. Institutional changes and incentive structures are required that recognize and take account of the pervasive and complex interrelationships between human reactions and responses in their production and consumption activities and the environment.     

RANGELAND DEGRADATION ON THE QINGHAI‐TIBET PLATEAU: IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION

With ever intensifying land use, land degradation is becoming an increasingly important issue around the world, especially in China. This paper evaluates the extent and underlying causes of rangeland degradation on the Qinghai‐Tibet Plateau in China through a comprehensive review of the literature. Diverse forms and differing intensities of rangeland degradation have been reported in several regions of the Plateau. Rangeland degradation is particularly severe in South Qinghai, North Tibet and the Qaidam Basin. Anthropogenic activities, especially changing land use practices, are identified as the primary force driving rangeland degradation. Dissimilar to climate change‐induced degradation, such anthropogenic degradation is a rather short‐term process altering the abiotic properties of the underlying soil. On the basis of these findings, we assessed the prospects of rehabilitating degraded rangeland to productive uses. Different measures are proposed to rehabilitate rangelands that have been degraded by different mechanisms. Reduction in grazing intensity is prescribed to rehabilitate reversibly degraded rangelands. Targeted human intervention in the forms of selective planting of grasses and artificial seeding, in conjunction with ecological and biological control of the plateau rodent population, is recommended to rehabilitate ‘irreversibly’ degraded rangelands. Our studies suggest it is very difficult or even impossible to rehabilitate new assemblage of species which appear as a result of climate change. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Historical Land‐use and Vegetation Change in Northern Kwazulu‐Natal,South Africa

The role of anthropogenic activity is increasingly recognized as an agent of environmental change. Photographs, taken more than 130 years ago in KwaZulu‐Natal, South Africa, show a very different landscape to that viewed today. In attempting to understand some of the dynamics behind the changes in the landscape, we explored the history of land‐use in communal rangelands in KwaZulu‐Natal from the arrival of Iron Age man through to modern practices. Communal farming is frequently cited as a major cause of environmental degradation. Traditional lifestyles have been eroded by social, political and economic changes since the arrival of European explorers and settlers in the early 1800s. This may have contributed to encroachment by woody plants into the open savannas and grasslands of KwaZulu‐Natal in recent times because of increased grazing pressure and, perhaps reduced fires. Furthermore, there is decreasing dependence on wood for everyday needs due to the increased availability of electricity. Interviews with a number of community members indicate that they have noted a change in climate and in vegetation structure. Their observations have been confirmed by climate data and historic photographs. Environmental planners need to view change in a holistic manner, taking cognisance not only of the physical changes but also of the history of land‐use and human needs and to give credence to community perceptions. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Farmers' perception of land‐cover changes in NE Iceland

Land degradation is considered to be a major environmental problem by scientific and political institutions in Iceland. In past years, land degradation problems related to sheep and horse grazing have gradually come to the fore in public discussion of environmental questions. However, land degradation is often evaluated in different ways by different groups of people. This has led to a lack of consensus regarding rates and severity of land degradation. Therefore, it is important to study differences in environmental perception, and how these differences can be dealt with in the context of sustainable management. This paper aims to highlight farmers' perception of land degradation in Iceland, as perceptions of the environment determine the basis for human activities related to the land. A total of 100 farmers in NE Iceland were questioned and interviewed for their opinions on land degradation, its history, causes and severity. The results indicate that farmers consider land degradation to be a slow process, and not a catastrophic phenomenon. The understanding of the general ecological processes by the users affects their practices and concern for their environment. This feeds back on the land‐use system and ultimately causes changes in land‐cover. Therefore, if we are to increase our understanding of the processes that lead to land‐cover changes we have to integrate the perceptions of land users and technical experts. In this way we may improve conservation practices and land‐resource management policies. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of land management on the abundance and richness of spiders (Araneae): A meta-analysis

Human land use, through forest management and conversion of natural habitats into agroecosystems, has often resulted in loss of biodiversity. Spiders are important predators in terrestrial ecosystems, biological control agents against pests in agroecosystems and forests, and useful indicators due to their sensibility to changes in habitat structure and microclimate. Effects of land use on spiders have been reviewed several times but existing reviews are narrative and usually focused on one single kind of management. We summarize the impacts of land use on spider abundance and species richness using meta-analysis. The main ecosystems where the effect of management on spiders has been studied were forests, agroecosystems and rangelands (including meadows and grasslands). Although our survey retrieved studies from all parts of the world and climatic zones, a dominance of studies from temperate habitats in Europe and North America was evident. The meta-analysis showed negative effects on spider species richness and abundance for agroecosystems and rangelands, but were less evident for forests. From 10 kinds of land management identified, all but forest plantation showed effects on spider richness or abundance. These land management scenarios affected either species richness (forest fragmentation and logging, farmland abandonment, and miscellaneous management including plowing, cutting and fire), or spider abundance (forest fragmentation, forest fire, conventional farming, insecticides, grazing, and farmland abandonment), but not both. Edge effects had contrasting effects depending on the ecosystem, affecting spider species richness in agroecosystems and abundance in rangelands and forests. Direct destruction of spiders or negative effects on habitat heterogeneity or prey populations were the most likely causes of the negative effects detected.     

Agricultural terrace abandonment in the alpujarra,andalucia, spain

The environmental impact of recent changes in land use is assessed in a part of Andalucia, southern Spain, where the deintensification and abandonment of low productivity upland areas is taking place. In the uplands of the Alpujarra, the traditional landscape most at risk is that of the irrigated cultivation terraces. These have often been established centuries ago and rely on water abstracted from streams draining the southern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The causes of this deintensification include labour shortages, with many Alpujarra municipios reporting population decreases of up to 50 per cent since 1950. Landsat Thematic Mapper digital data from May and August 1992 have been used to identify the various land cover components of the Alpujarra. Ground verification undertaken in September 1992 and April 1993 has confirmed that deintensification of terraced areas around the villages of Trevélez (at 1500m, the highest village in Spain) and Pórtugos (1300 m) can be identified as either grassland or matorral. It is recognized that many classes of land cover are mosaics with several elements at a subpixel scale (e.g. terrace risers with fruit trees). However, the output from image processing has allowed areal estimates of the main land covers representing deintensification within the terraced zone. The pattern of deintensification of terraced land is fairly complex. It can be assumed that all terraces were irrigated and cropped at some stage. Land which is no longer cropped is usually grazed and the invasion of matorral species is common, particularly when irrigation ceases. Unirrigated tree crops and vines are sometimes planted on terraces no longer used for cropping. A model of deintensification of farming on terraced land in the Alpujarra is presented.     

A Knowledge‐Based Approach for Mapping Land Degradation in the Arid Rangelands of North Africa

Rangelands cover about 82% of the arid area of Morocco. It is generally acknowledged that these areas are threatened by desertification. Monitoring desertification requires accurate knowledge about the current status of rangeland degradation. Remote sensing is widely used to assess changes in land cover, but its use in arid rangelands has limitations because of spectral confusion among various types of land cover. The objective of this study was to assess the severity and spatial extent of rangeland degradation in the high plateaus of eastern Morocco, using a knowledge‐based approach combining remote sensing and ancillary data. This approach relies on analyzing datasets derived from Landsat TM satellite imagery, lithology, bioclimatic data and field measurements. The level of rangeland degradation was assessed using indicators such as vegetation parameters, grazing levels and cultivation intensity, which provided a high level of accuracy for mapping and monitoring the degradation of the arid rangelands. The results showed that the total area of degraded rangeland in the high plateaus of eastern Morocco is about 17,417 km², accounting for 48% in the studied area. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Land use change and land degradation in China from 1991 to 2001

China has long been experiencing intense land use/cover changes (LUCC). Undesirable land use/cover changes have resulted in widespread land degradation. This study examines the temporal and spatial dynamics of land use change and land degradation as evident from land use survey datasets (1991–2001). Six prominent land degradation processes were identified, namely: desertification, secondary salinisation, loss of agricultural use, deforestation, grassland degradation and loss of wetland. Rates of conversion were calculated and distribution patterns were mapped with the aid of GIS. The results showed that these land use changes have affected the wider environment and accelerated land degradation. It provided a more complete and up‐to‐date picture of China's land degradation which helps to develop improved conservation policies that combat land degradation and promote sustainable land management. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effect of development interventions on the use of indigenous range management strategies in the Borana Lowlands in Ethiopia

In the last three decades, the Borana rangelands of Southern Ethiopia have been deteriorating due to unsustainable utilization. This paper analyses the changes in indigenous range management among the Borana pastoralists and the role of development interventions. The fieldwork was carried out during 2000–2002, following a severe drought. Two locations, Dida Hara and Web, that once were part of a large grazing system with seasonally distinct herd movements, experienced differences in development interventions. Indigenous range management strategies and pastoralists' current use of key strategies before and after the last drought were compared based on pastoralists' information about land‐use change collected through participatory appraisals, land‐use mapping, and household surveys. Priorities for future interventions were discussed in multi‐stakeholder workshops. Water development in rainy season grazing areas such as Dida Hara has resulted in year‐round grazing and expansion of permanent encampments. This has affected the traditional dry‐season areas like Web because it interrupted the organization of rangeland management. Herd mobility became less applicable and traditional land‐use classifications have lost their function in range management. The introduction of government‐imposed administration disturbed the indigenous institutional networks and negotiation procedures for controlled herd movements. Aggravated by human population growth, this reinforces a higher and more permanent grazing pressure, leading to the deterioration of rangelands. Despite the disturbance of pastoralists' range management practices considerable technical and management capabilities prevail. Innovative development approaches should integrate indigeneous knowledge‐based (IK) strategies and formal legislation, but this requires strong external support and official recognition from the Ethiopian Government. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Monitoring land use change in the Çeşme coastal zone,Turkey using aerial photographs and satellite imaging

Humans change the landscapes and especially the coastal zones for their requirements. The aim of the study was to analyse land use changes in the Çeşme coastal zone, Turkey, during a 48‐year period (1957–2005) using remote sensing and GIS. In this study, land use changes in the Çeşme coastal zone were analysed using the four sets of land use maps derived from aerial photographs and classified satellite image taken in the years 1957, 1976, 1995 and 2005. Post‐classification algorithm change detection was applied to observe land use changes during three time periods: Period 1 (1957–1976), Period 2 (1976–1995) and Period 3 (1995–2005). The results showed that natural land cover and agricultural lands decreased and built‐up area increased throughout the study area during the 48‐year period between 1957 and 2005. Furthermore, land use change was successively increased in Period 1, Period 3 and Period 2. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Assessing disease risk at the wildlife–livestock interface: A study of Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep

Despite evidence that domestic sheep diseases threaten the persistence of bighorn sheep populations, the economic consequences of restricting domestic sheep grazing has polarized the debate, with some arguing that disease risk posed by domestic sheep has been exaggerated and grazing restrictions should be eased. We constructed a model to assess how different management strategies (grazing allotment closures, grazing time reductions, and reduced probability of stray domestic sheep) affect the risk of respiratory disease transmission from domestic sheep to endangered Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep, and to predict population-level impacts of an outbreak. Even when management strategies reduced risk of interspecies contact to less than 2% per year, our model predicted a 50% probability of a catastrophic respiratory disease outbreak during the next 10 bighorn sheep generations. If an outbreak occurs in the near future, the model predicts that the smallest Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep population would have a 33% probability of quasi-extinction. To eliminate all risk of contact and potential disease transmission, domestic sheep cannot be grazed on allotments that overlap with areas utilized by Sierra Nevada bighorn sheep. Where wildlife and domestic animal populations share limited habitat, and there is documented evidence of a substantial disease threat and extinction risk, stakeholders must recognize that the only way to eliminate contact and risk of disease transmission is to give priority to one species or the other. If conservation is the priority, difficult decisions will need to be made to balance trade-offs between economic livelihoods and species conservation.     

Critical Nitrogen Deposition Loads in High-elevation Lakes of the Western US Inferred from Paleolimnological Records

Critical loads of nitrogen (N) from atmospheric deposition were determined for alpine lake ecosystems in the western US using fossil diatom assemblages in lake sediment cores. Changes in diatom species over the last century were indicative of N enrichment in two areas, the eastern Sierra Nevada, starting between 1960 and 1965, and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, starting in 1980. In contrast, no changes in diatom community structure were apparent in lakes of Glacier National Park. To determine critical N loads that elicited these community changes, we modeled wet nitrogen deposition rates for the period in which diatom shifts first occurred in each area using deposition data spanning from 1980 to 2007. We determined a critical load of 1.4 kg N ha^?1 year^?1 wet N deposition to elicit key nutrient enrichment effects on diatom communities in both the eastern Sierra Nevada and the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.     

Rangeland Use Change to Agriculture Has Different Effects on Soil Organic Matter Fractions Depending on the Type of Cultivation

The agricultural use of natural ecosystem is increasing in the Middle East because of population growth in the most countries. The type of cultivation could affect the content of soil organic matter in the rangeland use changes into agriculture. Therefore, we compared soil organic matter fractions of semi‐arid rangelands with agricultural lands (wheat‐land, pea‐land and orchard) where have been changed from semi‐arid rangelands to agriculture 15 years before. The results showed that in general, total and particulate organic matter (TOM and POM) and total nitrogen (TN) were highest in the rangeland compared with the three‐agricultural lands in intact soil, macro‐aggregates and micro‐aggregates (p < 0·05). Nevertheless, TOM content in orchard (1·45%) was higher than the two other land uses, and there was no significant difference of TN between natural rangeland and orchard in intact soil. The highest values of POM were obtained in the rangeland (0·23%) and orchard (0·22%), and the lowest value of POM was obtained in the pea‐land (0·14%) and wheat‐land (0·08%) in macro‐aggregates. In micro‐aggregates, TOM, POM and TN were highest in the rangeland (1·77%, 0·23% and 0·19%, respectively) and showed similar pattern in the three‐agricultural lands. We discussed that compared with pea‐land and wheat‐land, orchard was received less negative impact on soil qualitative parameters in land use changes projects from rangeland into agriculture. We conclude that orchard could be a better option in rangeland use changes into agriculture compared with the other cultivations. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Upland development policy,livelihood change and land degradation: interactions from a Laotian village

This study uses a local political ecology approach that examines the physical and social dimensions of land use and soil erosion and their broader political and socioeconomic environment in Ban Lak Sip, a village located in the uplands of the Luang Prabang Province in Laos. The study indicates that, despite an explicit government policy aimed at improving both socioeconomic and environmental conditions, the resulting livelihood change has in part led to a deterioration in working conditions with mixed impacts on the environment. While land degradation and economic transition appear to have driven villagers to rework the role and importance of the land in their livelihoods, this paper argues that the Laotian rural development policy has constrained the adaptation process and led to a significant intensification in labour and land use. In fact, Ban Lak Sip villagers have had to adapt both to actual land degradation processes and to a discourse on upland environmental degradation constructed by the Laotian State and international development actors. The results of this study have significant implications for the formulation of environmental policy and for land degradation research more widely. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties in the Kali Basin at Lake Balaton, Hungary

Historical land use changes may have significant impact on erosion and agricultural soil properties, including soil degradation by acidification, nutrient leaching and organic matter depletion. The Kali Basin study area, a small catchment of high landscape value located in a national park at Lake Balaton, Hungary, with its historical agricultural records, together with the available unique historical land use data for the last 200 years, provides an opportunity to study and model impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties. Comparison of long-term land uses with present soil degradation indicator parameters showed that permanent arable land use has led to degradation of both the physical and chemical properties of soils in the Kali Basin. Application of the SEDEM/WATEM distributed erosion and sediment transport model showed that, despite the low overall sediment export from the catchment, land use changes introduced by property ownership and agricultural changes have decreased average soil erosion in the catchment but increased relative sediment export to Lake Balaton. This is due to changes in the land cover pattern that allow more sediment transported to the river system. The overall conclusion of this study is that besides the size and area proportion of land use types, land use pattern seems to be equally important in soil erosion and degradation processes, thus land use pattern is a key factor for landscape planning and development in the Kali Basin. A relationship between the sociological and agro-ecological reasons for the recorded land use changes is also shown in this study.     

Impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties in the Kali Basin at Lake Balaton,Hungary

Historical land use changes may have significant impact on erosion and agricultural soil properties, including soil degradation by acidification, nutrient leaching and organic matter depletion. The Kali Basin study area, a small catchment of high landscape value located in a national park at Lake Balaton, Hungary, with its historical agricultural records, together with the available unique historical land use data for the last 200 years, provides an opportunity to study and model impacts of historical land use changes on erosion and agricultural soil properties. Comparison of long-term land uses with present soil degradation indicator parameters showed that permanent arable land use has led to degradation of both the physical and chemical properties of soils in the Kali Basin. Application of the SEDEM/WATEM distributed erosion and sediment transport model showed that, despite the low overall sediment export from the catchment, land use changes introduced by property ownership and agricultural changes have decreased average soil erosion in the catchment but increased relative sediment export to Lake Balaton. This is due to changes in the land cover pattern that allow more sediment transported to the river system. The overall conclusion of this study is that besides the size and area proportion of land use types, land use pattern seems to be equally important in soil erosion and degradation processes, thus land use pattern is a key factor for landscape planning and development in the Kali Basin. A relationship between the sociological and agro-ecological reasons for the recorded land use changes is also shown in this study.     

陕北黄土高原土地利用/覆盖变化及生态效应评价

基于1997年和2006年两期遥感影像获得陕北黄土高原地区土地利用变化数据,结合 RS和GIS技术,对陕北黄土高原土地利用/覆盖变化特征进行了分析.并采用生态服务价值的方法对陕北黄土高原土地利用变化的生态效应进行了综合评价.结果表明,1997-2006年,陕北黄土高原利用类型发生了显著变化,该区50.37%的耕地转换成为林地和草地,总体生态服务价值量显著增加7.67×106元,年增长率为0.2%,整体生态环境指数有所提高从0.145增长到0.157,土地利用/覆盖变化整体生态贡献指数变化明显,整体贡献指数为1.239,生态环境质量明显改善,表明退耕还林以来陕北黄土高原地区整体生态环境向着健康方向发展.     

Integrating local and scientific knowledge for adaptation to land degradation: Kalahari rangeland management options

Despite numerous assessments of the sensitivity and resilience of drylands to degradation, there has been little research into the way affected communities innovate and adapt in response to land degradation. This paper shows how local and scientific knowledge can be combined to identify rangeland management strategies to reduce or adapt to land degradation. To achieve this, we have developed and applied a four‐stage social learning approach based on stakeholder participation in three degradation ‘hotspots’ in communal rangelands of the Kalahari, Botswana. This approach aims to collate, evaluate and apply both scientific and local knowledge on rangeland degradation and management options. First, current practice and possible management options were identified from the literature. Second, a series of semi‐structured interviews with rangeland users identified local knowledge of strategies to reduce and adapt to land degradation. Third, these options were discussed and evaluated with rangeland stakeholders in focus groups held across each study region. Finally, the outputs from these focus groups were used to produce rangeland assessment guides for each region that provided management options agreed to be locally relevant by both researchers and local stakeholders. The study found that the majority of strategies reported in the literature were not suitable for use by pastoralists in the Kalahari. However, many of the strategies suggested by stakeholders could only be applied effectively under common property regimes, giving impetus to the growing literature encouraging institutional reform to strengthen common property management regimes. The research stimulated a social learning process that combined knowledge from local stakeholders (both pastoralists and extension workers) with the scientific knowledge of researchers to provide a range of management options that could help land managers reduce or adapt to land degradation. By combining participatory research with insights from scientific literature in this way, more relevant results were provided than either approach could have achieved alone. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Mapping and monitoring land degradation risks in the Western Brazilian Amazon using multitemporal Landsat TM/ETM+ images

Mapping and monitoring land degradation in areas under human‐induced stresses have become urgent tasks in remote sensing whose importance has not yet been fully appreciated. In this study, a surface cover index (SCI) is developed to evaluate and map potential land degradation risks associated with deforestation and accompanying soil erosion in a Western Brazilian Amazon rural settlement study area. The relationships between land‐use and land‐cover (LULC) types and land degradation risks as well as the impacts of LULC change on land degradation are examined. This research indicates that remotely sensed data can be effectively used for identification and mapping of land degradation risks and monitoring of land degradation changes in the study area. Sites covered by mature forest and advanced successional forests have low land degradation risk potential, while some types of initial successional forests, agroforestry/perennial agriculture and pasture have higher risk potential. Deforestation and associated soil erosion are major causes leading to land degradation, while vegetation regrowth reduces such problems. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Valuing Ecosystem Services in Semi‐arid Rangelands through Stochastic Simulation

Ecosystem services and economic returns from semi‐arid rangelands are threatened by land degradation. Policies to improve ecosystem service delivery often fail to consider uncertainty in economic returns gained through different land uses and management practices. We apply an analytical framework using stochastic simulation to estimate the range of potential monetary outcomes of rangeland ecosystem services under different land uses, including consideration of the uncertainty and variability of model parameters. We assess monetary and non‐monetary dimensions, including those ecosystem services with uncertain and missing information, for communal rangelands, commercial ranches, game farms and Wildlife Management Areas in southern Kgalagadi District, Botswana. Public land uses (communal grazing areas and protected conservation land in Wildlife Management Areas) provide higher economic value than private land uses (commercial ranches and game farms), despite private land uses being more profitable in their returns from meat production. Communal rangelands and protected areas are important for a broader range of ecosystem services (cultural/spiritual services, recreation, firewood, construction material and wild food), which play a key role in sustaining the livelihoods of the largest share of society. The full range of ecosystem services should therefore be considered in economic assessments, while policies targeting sustainable land management should value and support their provision and utilisation. By forecasting the range of plausible ecosystem values of different rangeland land uses in monetary terms, our analysis provides policymakers with a tool to assess outcomes of land use and management decisions and policies. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.