Quality of potato tubers as affected by freezing: II. lipids and minerals

The effect of freezing on the chemical composition of Katahdin and Atlantic potatoes was studied. Tubers were exposed to a temperature of ?20°C for 24 hrs., then thawed for 1 hr. at 20°C prior to analysis. Frozenthawed tubers were compared with unfrozen controls for total lipid, phospholipid, fatty acid and mineral content. Following freezing, a significant (p<.01) decrease was observed in crude lipid and phospholipid content of both cortex and pith sections. Generally, an increase in palmitic acid and a decrease in linolenic acid occurred in the phospholipid fractions of both varieties. A decrease in both macro and micro mineral content also occurred following freezing.     

The effect of phosphorus fertilization on the chemical quality of Katahdin potatoes

The influence of phosphorus fertilization on the content of ascorbic acid, lipids, total nitrogen, protein, and non-protein nitrogen of Katahdin potatoes was investigated. Phosphorus in the form of mono ammonium phosphate was applied at rates of 0, 56, 112, and 168 Kg/ha (0, 50, 100, and 150 lb/acre). Ascorbic acid, total nitrogen, protein and non-protein nitrogen content were significantly increased (p<.01) and the phospholipid content was significantly reduced (p<.01) by phosphorus application.     

High Temperature Modifies Resistance Performances of Rice Varieties to Brown Planthopper,Nilaparvata lugens(Stl)

To investigate the effect of temperature on the resistance characteristics of rice varieties with different resistance genes to brown planthopper(BPH),Nilaparvata lugens(Stl),the resistances of IR26(Bph1)and IR36(bph2)to BPH population in Hangzhou,China were monitored in greenhouse during September in 2007 and 2008 by using the standard seedling screening techniques(SSST)developed by the International Rice Research Institute(IRRI).Furthermore,the changes in resistance of IR26 and IR36 to BPH,soluble sugar and oxalic acid contents in 25-day-old rice plants of susceptible variety TN1 and resistant varieties IR26 and IR36 were detected at five temperatures(22℃,25℃,28℃,31℃ and 34℃).IR26 completely lost resistance both in greenhouse and at the five tested temperatures.IR36 still had moderate resistance at natural temperature,but its resistance decreased gradually when the temperature increased from 25℃ to 34℃,and fully lost its resistance at 31℃ and 34℃.The highest durable resistance of IR26 and IR36 were recorded at 25℃.The soluble sugar content in plants of the three tested rice varieties increased with temperature increase,and the oxalic acid content increased with the temperature increase at first,maximized at 25℃,and then declined.Two-way ANOVA indicated significant effects of temperature and rice variety on contents of soluble sugar and oxalic acid in rice plants.     

Biochemical Properties of Red Currant Varieties in Relation to Storage

Eleven red currant varieties (Ribes rubrum L.) cultured in Serbia were evaluated for some of their biochemical properties such as total phenolics, anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, invert sugar, soluble solid content, and acidity. The average amount of ascorbic acid varied from 50.5–71.6 mg/100 g FW, while concentration of invert sugars ranged from 6.0%–9.0%. The highest amounts of total phenolics and anthocyanins were detected in variety Redpoll (153.4 mg GAE/100 g FW and 19.3 mg/100 g, respectively). Red currants were processed to juice, and the phenolic and anthocyanin contents changed as a result of processing. Berries and juices were long-term stored at −18 °C and changes in phytochemicals were monitored. In berries, storage caused the decrease of ascorbic acid content up to 49%, and a general reduction of total phenolics was also noticed. In juices, total phenolics content increased after one year of storage. In both berries and juices total anthocyanins increased during storage by up to 85% and 50%, respectively. This study demonstrates that certain varieties, namely Redpoll, Jonkheer and London Market are good source of phytochemicals, retaining the nutritional value during processing and storage.     

The influence of storage conditions on physical and physiological characteristics of Shepody potatoesa

Summary The influence of storage temperature (pre-storage, 3 °C, 7 °C, and 9 °C) and controlled atmospheric (CA) conditions (7 °C, 2% O₂, 10% CO₂) were evaluated relative to the physiology and mechanical failure properties of potato tubers (Solarium tuberosum L. cv. Shepody). Mechanical properties of the tuber tissue differed by storage treatment although the physical properties could be generally explained by the measured relative turgor of the tissue. Models typically ascribe lower tissue toughness to greater tissue turgor. In this study, prior to storage tubers exhibited characteristics of greater tissue toughness (20.3 MPa) in conjunction with high relative tissue turgor (as measured by shock wave speed, 115 m/s). It appears that tubers prior to storage have quantitatively stronger tissue compared to tubers after storage regardless of hydration level. CA storage altered tissue mechanical properties as well as carbohydrate content and had physiochemical characteristics of tubers stored at 3 °C;. Idaho Agricultural Experiments Stations paper no.00710, Moscow, ID, USA.     

Germination of Wheat Grains at Various Temperatures in Relation to the Activities of α-Amylase and Endoprotease

Abstract

Germination percentages of wheat grains sampled at 3 grain-filling stages : yellow-ripe stage (water content 45-50%), dough-ripe stage (35-40%), and full-ripe stage (25-30%), and imbibed in water at 12°C and 20°C were examined in relation to the activities of α-amylase and endoprotease. Wheat varieties studied were Chihoku-komugi, which is susceptible to pre-harvest sprouting, and Satanta, which is resistant. Germination percentage was higher at 12°C than at 20°C in all grains sampled at all stages in both varieties, and was higher in Chihoku-komugi than in Satanta at 20°C. The activity of α-amylase in the grains at the yellow-ripe stage was higher at 12°C than at 20°C in both varieties, but that at the other 2 stages was higher only in Satanta. Endoprotease increased rapidly from 7 to 10 days after the start of imbibition, and exceeded 12 units only at 12°C in Chihoku-komugi grains at the dough and full-ripe stages. The results showed that α-amylase activity was lower than the value equivalent to 300 brabender unit (BU) in amylography when the germination percentage was 0%. Endoprotease activity exceeded 6 units when the germination percentage exceeded 90%.     

Teneur en vitamine C de 26 variétés de fraises

Résumé Il est peut-être prématuré de parler d'une influence du climat des différentes régions de la Pologne sur la teneur en acide ascorbique des fraises malgré les notables différences entre les stations expérimentales.L'influence du facteur variétal est évident, il se manifeste assez fidèlement d'une année à l'autre; les variétés: PURPURATKA et AFRYKA, toutes deux très fortement colorées viennent en tête des 27 variétés étudiées.Pour suivre la rétention de l'acide ascorbique dans les fruits des 17 variétés congelées au sirop (à 40%, 50% et 60% de sucrose) on a entrepris les dosages après 3 et 6 mois de stockage. On a effectué aussi des recherches technologiques plus approfondies sur 3 variétés seulement pour mettre en évidence l'action de la température du sirop entourant les fruits avant la congélation (20, 45, 50 et 100°C), puis l'influence du prérefroidissement, de la congélation et enfin du mode de décongélation.L'addition du sirop à la température ambiante (20°C) a donné des meilleurs résultats, qu'une addition à la température élevée. A la température de 45°C déjà, et pour la variété CAMBRIDGE FAVOURITE N 422 l'acide ascorbique diffuse des fruits dans le sirop (à 50 %) à la vitesse moyenne de 0,083 mg/cm² de surface de fruit/heure. La perte moyenne en acide ascorbique pour les fraises congelées de 17 variétés s'élève à environ 1 et par jour de la teneur initiale. Une conservation des fruits de variété PURPURATKA pendant 6 mois à l'état congelé influe moins sur leur teneur en acide ascorbique (baisse de 83,9 à 66,3 mg%) qu'une décongélation lente (de 83,9 à 59,4 mg%) même effectuée dès le 3ème jour après la congélation. Pendant la décongélation lente l'acide ascorbique passe davantage dans le sirop, dans lequel il s'oxyde vite en acide déshydroascorbique, la forme peu stable de la vitamine C.

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Summary Speaking of an influence of the climate of the different countries of Poland on strawberries content in ascorbic acid may be untimely in spite of important differences between the experimental stations.The influence of the variety-factor is obvious, and appears rather faithfully from one year to the other; the varieties Purpuratka and Afryka, both of them very coloured, are at the head of the 27 studied varieties.Determinations were undertaken after 3 and 6 months of storage in order to follow the retention of ascorbic acid in the fruit of the 17 freezed varieties in a syrup (40%, 50% and 60% of sucrose). Deeper technological researches were made on only 3 varieties in order to show the influence of the temperature of the syrup around the fruit before freezing (20, 45, 50 and 100°C), then the influence of precooling, freezing and at last way of thawing.Addition of syrup at ambient temperature (20°C) gave better results than an addition at high temperature. At 45°C, and for Cambridge Favourite N 422 variety, ascorbic acid diffuses from fruit into syrup (at 50%) at a mean speed of 0,083 mg/cm⁹ of fruit surface/hour. The mean loss in ascorbic acid for 17 varieties of froozen strawberries rises to about 1 per day of the initial content. Purpuratka variety freezed fruit storage during 6 months has a weaker influence on their content in ascorbic acid (83,9 to 66,3 mg % decrease) than a slow thawing (83,9 to 59,4 mg %) even made the third day after freezing. During slow thawing ascorbic acid passes into the syrup, in which it is quickly oxydised to dehydroascorbic acid, the unstable form of vitamin C.

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Zusammenfassung Es ist noch zu früh, den Klima-Einfluss der verschiedenen Teile Polens auf den Askorbinsäure-Gehalt der Erdbeeren zu beschreiben, obgleich bestimmte Differenzen zwischen den verschiedenen Versuchsstationen gefunden wurden. Der Sorten-Einfluss ist auffallend; von Jahr zu Jahr ist er zu verfolgen. Die Sorten Purpuratka und Afryka, beide stark gefärbt, stehen an der Spitze von 27 Sorten. Die Konservierung des Askorbinsäuregehaltes in den Früchten von 17 Sorten, die in Syrup (40%, 50%, 60% Zucker) eingebettet und nachher eingefroren waren, wurde bei 3 bis 6 Monate langer Lagerung verfolgt.Bei 3 Sorten wurde die Technik eingehender studiert, um den Einfluss der Syrup-Temperatur (20, 45, 50, 100°) bei der Einbettung, den Einfluss einer Vorkühlung, des Einfrierens und des Auftauens zu studieren. Einbettung in Syrup bei Zimmertemperatur (20°) hat bessere Resultate ergeben als Einbettung bei höherer Temperatur. Bei der Sorte Cambridge Favourite N 422, diffundiert die Askorbinsäure aus der Frucht in den Syrup (50% Zucker schon bei 45°) mit einer mittleren Geschwindigkeit von 0,083 mg/cm² Fruchtoberfiäche und Stunde. Der mittlere Verlust an Askorbinsäure bei den eingefrorenen Erdbeeren von 17 Sorten ist ungefähr 1 des Ursprungs-Gehaltes pro Tag.Die Konservierung der Sorte Purpuratka während 6 Monaten im eingefrorenen Zustande, (Verminderung von 83,9 auf 66,3 mg %) hat weniger Einfluss als ein langsames Auftauen (Verminderung von 83,9 auf 59,4 mg %) selbst nach 3 Tagen Einfrieren. Während eines langsamen Auftauens diffundiert mehr Askorbinsäure in den Syrup, worin diese Säure zu Dehydroaskorbinsäure, der unbeständigen Form des Vitamins C, oxydiert wird.

     

Effects of wilting,blanching and storage temperatures on ascorbic acid and total carotenoids content of some Nigerian fresh vegetables

Four fresh vegetables (fluted pumpkin leaf, okra, African spinach, and water leaf) were studied. Determinations were made of the amounts of ascorbic acid and total carotenoids in fresh, wilted and blanched begetables as well as in fresh and blanched vegetables stored at ?10°C and 5°C. Results showed that wilting accounted for the highest losses in both ascorbic acid and carotenoids in all vegetables investigated. The least losses in the two nutrients were observed in blanched vegetables. In general carotenoid was more stable to the different treatments than ascorbic acid.     

Effect of home processing and storage on ascorbic acid and β-carotene content of bathua (Chenopodium album) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum) leaves

The present investigation was conducted to study the effect of selected processing and storage methods on the concentration of ascorbic acid and β-carotene in Bathua and fenugreek, leaves. Methods included storage of leaves with or without polythene bags for 24 and 48 h in a refrigerator at 5°C; at 30°C in polythene bags; drying (sun and oven); blanching (5, 10, 15 min); open pan and pressure cooking. Ascorbic acid content of fresh leaves was 220.97 to 377.65 mg and β-carotene content was 19.00 to 24.64 mg/100 g, DW. The percent loss of ascorbic acid ranged from 2.03 to 8.77 and 45.15 to 66.9 while lower losses (0.0 to 1.75 and 1.63 to 2.84) of β-carotene were observed in leaves, stored in, the refrigerator and at 30°C, respectively. A markedly greater reduction in ascorbic acid and β-carotene was observed in dried, blanched and cooked leaves. The study data suggest that storage of leaves in refrigeration, drying in oven, blanching for a short time and cooking in a pressure cooker results in better retention of these two vitamins.     

Changes in ascorbic acid content during growth and short-term storage of potato tubers (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Changes in ascorbic acid levels were followed in apical and basal portions of Russet Burbank and Kennebec tubers during growth and development. Influence of nitrogen fertilization during growth and short-term storage on ascorbic acid level of the tuber was also studied. Changes in ascorbic acid content during growth showed two distinct phases, the first phase being characterized by an increase in ascorbic acid content with growth and development of the tuber, followed by a second phase which showed a decrease in ascorbic acid content with increasing maturity. The shift from the first phase to the second phase occurred earlier for Kennebec than for Russet Burbank. Increased nitrogen fertilization resulted in a delay of this shift from the first to the second phase. The apical portion of the tuber consistently showed higher ascorbic acid content than the basal portion. Kennebec tubers were higher in vitamin C content than tubers of Russet Burbank cultivar. High nitrogen fertilization resulted in less ascorbic acid content during growth. Storage of tubers for four weeks at 5.5°C also resulted in a marked decrease in ascorbic acid content of tubers. Nitrogen fertilizer rate during growth had no influence on the decrease in ascorbic acid content of tubers in storage.     

不同抗寒性冬小麦叶鞘质膜的稳定性表现

为了解叶鞘质膜稳定性与小麦抗寒性的关系,以返青率不同的4个冬小麦品种(系)为材料,研究寒地冬小麦越冬期叶鞘质膜稳定性变化及其影响因素。结果表明,低温下,冬小麦叶鞘相对电导率与自由水和总水分含量呈显著正相关,丙二醛含量与SOD和POD活性、AsA含量呈显著正相关;封冻后,抗寒性强的冬麦品种(系)的SOD活性和GSH含量显著高于抗寒性弱的品种(系)。在深度封冻期保持叶鞘质膜稳定性有助于增强冬小麦抗寒性。     

Effect of Final Dough Temperature on the Microstructure of Frozen Bread Dough

The effect of final mixing temperature (16 °C and 31 °C) on the structure stability of frozen bread dough was examined by low temperature-scanning electron microscopy and the quality of bread made from them assessed. The presence of ice-crystals were determined in both doughs after freezing, by low-temperature S.E.M. The microstructures showed a slight increase in size and decrease in number of angular voids, representing ice-crystals, after 14 weeks storage at −20 °C. Loaves baked from frozen dough with a final mixing temperature of 31 °C were poorer in both gassing power and overall loaf quality than 16 °C doughs, after 14 weeks storage.     

Influence of chilling on potato tuber respiration,sugar, O-dihydroxyphenolic content and membrane permeability

The response of four potato cultivars to various temperatures was evaluated in respect to respiration, sugar and phenolic content, and ion leakage from cut tissue sections. Respiration decreased with decreasing temperature from 20° to 0°C but after 24 hours at 0°C began to increase and reached a maximum after 10 days at 0°C, then drifted downward. No distinct break in an Arrhenius plot of the respiration data from 20° to 0°C was observed. Reducing and non-reducing sugars did not change initially between 20° and 0°C and did not increase until after 6 or 7 days at 0°C. The magnitude of the increase in sugars varied between cultivars. Only one cultivar significantly increased in phenolic content during chilling. Ion leakage remained constant from 20° to 0°C then showed a transient increase within 24 hours at 0°C. A sustained increase in leakage did not occur until after 10 days at 0°C. Cultivars varied in the rate and magnitude of the increase. The respiratory rise could not be attributed to an increase in sugar content or an increase in membrane permeability. Also, the initial increase in sugars preceded the sustained increase in ion leakage. Differences observed between cultivars in the parameters measured were not considered sufficient to explain differences in chilling sensitivity.     

Ascorbate Oxidase levels in Wheat and their Relationship to Baking Quality

Flour samples from 127 samples of wheat of 13 different cultivars grown throughout New Zealand during two seasons were extracted with 1mNa₂SO₄(pH 8·3) and assayed for ascorbate oxidase (AOX) at pH 6·2 by a continuous spectrophotometric method. The mean AOX activity of the cultivar with the greatest activity, Domino, was more than three times that of the cultivar with the lowest activity, Brock. The differences in AOX activity amongst cultivars were maintained for two seasons. The range of AOX activities of different wheat samples within each cultivar was about two-fold for most cultivars. A sample of cv. Domino with the highest activity was 14 times more active than the lowest activity sample of cv. Brock. There was a significant correlation between low AOX activity and bake score of cultivars or individual wheat samples. There was also a correlation between log AOX and protein content, and protein content was also correlated with bake score. Flour stored for 300 days at 20°C and wheat stored for two or more years had reduced AOX activities and bake scores. However, flour containing low endogenous AOX activity produced the same bake scores with ascorbic acid plus squash AOX as with ascorbic acid alone. It was concluded that the level of AOX in wheat was not critical to the ascorbic acid improver effect, provided sufficient oxygen was mixed into the dough by high-speed mixers.     

Effects of germination and kilning on the phenolic compounds and nutritional properties of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus)

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) and kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus) are nutritious pseudocereals that originate from the Andean region. The aim of this research was to study the effect of germination and the subsequent kilning on the phenolic compounds and proximate composition in selected Peruvian varieties of quinoa (“Chullpi”) and kiwicha (“Oscar Blanco”). The germination process was carried out for 24, 48 and 72 h at 22 °C, and the kilning was performed with samples germinated for 72 h by drying the seeds at 90 °C for 5 min. Both processes increased the protein content of the samples. However, lipid content was reduced during germination. On the other hand, germination and kilning clearly increased the concentration of total phenolic compounds in both quinoa and kiwicha. Germination for 72 h either with or without kilning process resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the total content of phenolics compared to untreated materials, which was especially due to coumaric acid and a kaempferol tri-glycoside in quinoa and caffeoylquinic acid in kiwicha. Based on the results, germination and kilning may improve the nutritional quality of the Andean grains, encouraging the usage of the processed grains as ingredients in functional products for people with special gluten-free or vegetarian diets.     

Survival ofCorynebacterium sepedonicum at freezing and at wide fluctuations between freezing and above-freezing temperatures

The survival ofCorynebacterium sepedonicum, the bacterial ring rot pathogen of potatoes, on burlap surfaces held at constant freezing and above-freezing temperatures and under wide fluctuations of these temperatures was investigated by root-inoculating potato stem cuttings with aqueous suspensions prepared from these surfaces. The pathogen survived and remained infectious on burlap for 53 mo at all constant freezing temperatures, and its infectivity did not diminish throughout this period at either ?20 or ?40°C. At 42 months, viable ring rot bacteria were no longer detected at a constant temperature of 5°C. In a second experiment, ring rot bacteria survived and remained infectious on burlap for 23 months at fluctuating temperatures of ?40 to 5°C and ?40 to 25°C, but only survived for 12 months at 25°C. However, results of this study indicate that wide fluctuations between freezing and above-freezing temperatures caused decreased infectivity of the pathogen.     

Variation in ascorbic acid and mineral content in fruits of some varieties of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.)

Ascorbic acid content in green and ripe fruits and zinc, copper, manganese, iron, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus content in dry fruits were found to vary significantly in different varieties of chilli (Capsicum annuum L.). Ascorbic acid content in ripe fruits of all of the eleven chilli varieties was higher than in the corresponding green fruits. Path coefficient analysis showed that number of days to fruit ripening, fruit surface area, fruit length, dry and fresh fruit yield, ascorbic acid content in green fruits and iron, calcium, magnesium and copper content in dry fruits influenced ascorbic acid content in ripe fruits of chilli.     

Effect of quick-freezing temperature on starch retrogradation and ice crystals properties of steamed oat roll

Oat roll is one of the traditional oat wholemeal foods. The purpose of this work was to investigate the effects of quick freezing at −20 °C, −40 °C and −80 °C for 90 min before frozen storage on the quality of frozen steamed oat roll. Quick freezing at −40 °C and −80 °C inhibited the increase of peak gelatinization temperature, enthalpy and the ordered degree of oat roll starch, therefore postponing starch retrogradation. The cross-section microstructure confirmed that reducing the quick-freezing temperature could prevent the increase of ice crystals size, ruptured structures and maintain the integrity of internal structure. As the storage time extend, the ice recrystallization led to an increase in size of ice crystals, while a decrease in their number. Frozen steamed oat roll starch had the highest swelling power at the quick-freezing temperature of −80 °C, that indicated strongest water absorption and binding ability when gelatinized again. Texture analysis demonstrated that hardness increased during frozen storage, quick freezing at −80 °C had the best texture properties. Therefore, declining the quick-freezing temperature could obtain a higher quality of frozen steamed oat roll, by means of delaying the starch retrogradation and minimising the size of ice crystals.     

A comparison, under controlled environmental conditions, of a Lolium multiflorum selection bred for high dry-matter content and non-structural carbohydrate concentration with a commercial cultivar

Abstract The nutritional value of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum) selection 121, bred for a high dry‐matter content and a high concentration of total non‐structural carbohydrate (TNC), was compared with that of Westerwolds ryegrass (L. multiflorum ssp. Westerwoldicum) cv. Midmar in a controlled environment. The concentration of neutral‐detergent fibre (NDF), acid‐detergent fibre (ADF), acid‐detergent lignin (ADL), nitrogenous compounds, minerals and in vitro digestibility were investigated as characteristics of nutritive value. The anatomical features of selection 121 and the Midmar cultivar were studied to determine possible structural differences. Thirty pots each of selection 121 and Midmar containing four plants per pot were arranged in a randomized block design in a controlled environment chamber. There were two temperature regimes during the study, the first being a warm regime (30 °C/20 °C) for 7 weeks followed by a cold regime(20 °C/7 °C) of a further 7 weeks. In the warm regime, the dry‐matter (DM) content and the TNC concentration of selection 121 were 0·17 and 0·16 higher, respectively, than Midmar. The NDF concentration was significantly (P < 0·01) higher in Midmar than in selection 121. When grown under warm conditions, Midmar had significantly (P < 0·001) higher concentrations of Mg, K, Na and Mn than selection 121. In the cold regime, the DM content and TNC concentration of selection 121 were 0·25 and 0·22 higher, respectively, than Midmar. No significant differences in the anti‐quality factors investigated were found between the two ryegrasses. In the cold regime, Midmar had significantly (P < 0·001 and P < 0·01) higher Ca, Mg, K, Na, Zn, Mn and P concentrations than selection 121. The results from this controlled environment study suggest that selection 121 is superior to Midmar in terms of the quality characteristics DM and TNC, and that these characteristics are not positively linked to anti‐quality factors associated with forage species.     

The Difference in Sterility due to High Temperatures during the Flowering Period among Japonica-Rice Varieties

Summary

The objectives of this study are to compare the floret sterility induced by a high temperature given in the daytime during the flowering period among nine japonica rice varieties, and to clarify the mechanism of the high-temperature-induced sterility. Nine japonica rice varieties were subjected to 35.0, 37.5 or 40.0°C day- temperature conditions (1000-1600) for six consecutive days using sun-lit phytotrons, and the percentage of fertility, pollination and germinated pollen grains on the stigmas were examined. The temperature that caused 50% sterility varied with the variety, and a difference of approximately 3.0°C was observed between the most tolerant and susceptible varieties. Under the 37.5°C day-temperature condition, the percentage of florets with 10 or more germinated pollen grains was roughly coincident with the percent fertility, but under the 40° C day-temperature condition, it was higher than the percent fertility. Many of the florets with less than 10 germinated pollen grains had less than 20 total pollen grains on their stigmas under both temperature conditions. From these results, we concluded that sure pollination under high-temperature conditions is an important factor and that the high-temperature tolerance of the processes following pollen germination is also required for fertility under excessively high temperature conditions.