Recovery of Surface Waters in the Northeastern U.S. from Decreases in Atmospheric Deposition of Sulfur

A simple mass flux model was developed to simulate the response of SO₄ ^2- concentrations in surface waters to past and anticipated future changes in atmospheric deposition of SO₄ ^2-. Values of bulk (or wet) SO₄ ^2- deposition and dry deposition of S determined from measured air concentrations and a deposition velocity were insufficient to balance watershed SO₄ ^2- export at the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, NH and for a regional survey of watersheds in the northeastern U.S. We propose two explanations for the unmeasured S source: 1) a significant underestimation of dry S deposition, and/or 2) internal watershed S sources, such as weathering and/or mineralization of soil organic S. Model simulations based on these two mechanisms agreed closely with measured stream SO₄ ^2- concentrations at Hubbard Brook. Close agreement between measured and model predicted results precluded identification of which of the two mechanisms controlled long-term trends in stream SO₄ ^2-. Model simulations indicated that soil adsorption reactions significantly delayed the response of stream water to declines in SO₄ ^2- inputs since 1970, but could not explain the discrepancy in watershed S budgets. Extrapolation of model predictions into the future demonstrates that uncertainty in the source of the S imbalance in watersheds has important implications for assessments of the recovery of surface water acid neutralizing capacity in response to anticipated future reductions in SO2 emissions.     

Evalution of Acid Deposition in Korea

This study was carried out to evaluate acid depositions and to understand their effect. Wet precipitation has been collected at twenty-four sites in Korea for one year of 1999. The ion concentrations such as H⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄ ⁺, Ca²⁺, Cl^?, NO₃ ^? and SO₄ ^2? were chemically analyzed and determined. Precipitation had wide range of pH(3.5～8.5), and volume-weighted average was 5.2. The contribution amounts of Cl^?, SO₄ ^2? and NO₃ ^? in anion were shown to be 54%, 32%, and 14%, respectively and those of Na⁺ and NH₄ ⁺ in cation were 32% and 25%. The ratios of Cl^? and Mg²⁺ to Na⁺ in precipitation were similar to those of seawater, which imply that great amount of Cl^? and Mg²⁺ in precipitation could be originated from seawater. The concentration of H⁺ is little related with SO₄ ^2?, NO₃ ^? and Cl^? ions, whereas nss^?SO₄ ^2? and NO₃ ^? are highly correlated with NH₄ ⁺, which could suggest that great amount of SO₄ ^2? and NO₃ ^? exist in the form of ammonium associated salt. The annual wet deposition amounts (g m^?2year^?1) of SO₄ ^2?, NO₃ ^?, Cl^?, H⁺, NH₄ ⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺ were estimated as 0.88～4.89, 0.49～4.37, 0.30～9.80, 0.001～0.031, 0.06～2.15, 0.27～4.27, 0.10～3.81, 0.23～1.59 and 0.03～0.63.     

The Importance of Calcium Deposition in Assessing Impacts of Acid Deposition in China

The extensive use of coal as an energy carrier in China has led to high deposition of sulfur in a large part of the country. In the southern part of China large areas receive acid deposition, while in the northern part of the country the acidity of the emissions is neutralized by alkaline dust from the desert areas. In this paper we demonstrate the importance of knowing the sources and deposition patterns of base cations when assessing the effects of changes in sulfur emissions. Regional-scale data of both sulfur and calcium deposition from modeling and monitoring are combined in order to demonstrate how the acidity of deposition in China has changed historically and may change in the future. The importance of base cation deposition is also demonstrated using the dynamic acidification model MAGIC with input data from an intensive monitoring site outside Guiyang. It is not known what fraction of the deposited base cations is of natural origin and anthropogenic origin, respectively. The relative source strength varies greatly between regions. Future effects of emission changes are highly dependent on the relative reduction in sulfur and base cation emissions.     

Influence of Acid Deposition on Inland Water Chemistry - A Case Study from Hyogo Prefecture, Japan -

The Influence of acid deposition on stream and lake water chemistry was studied in a forested watershed of Hyogo prefecture, Japan. Monthly sampling of four streams, one artificial lake, and precipitation was carried out from 1995 to 2000. The pH of the monthly bulk precipitation and rainwater were ranged from 4.06 to 7.10. No trends were evident during the monitoring periods. The pH and alkalinity in the four streams, which flow into the artificial lake, ranged from 6.37 to 8.72 and 0.077 meqL^?1 to 0.485 meqL^?1, respectively. The differences in the water quality of the four streams were related to the geology of each watershed. Lower pH and alkalinity were observed during high- discharge periods. On the other hand, the pH and alkalinity of the outflow from the lake ranged from 6.47 to 7.36 and 0.195 meqL^?1 to 0.339 meqL^?1, respectively. No acidification of the aquatic environment was observed during the investigated periods. The results suggest that this forested ecosystem has the capacity to neutralize incoming acid deposition.     

Soil Vulnerability and Sensitivity to Acid Deposition in China

Sensitivity, in this context, refers to `the degree to which a system will respond to acid deposition', while vulnerability is `the extent to which acid deposition may damage or harm system'.Thus, sensitivity stresses the risk of an increase in the rateof change of the soil chemistry (the acidification rate), and vulnerability stresses the risk of damage to an organism or system (the acidification state). With regard to acid depositioneffects, both vulnerable and sensitive ecosystems are of concern;however, they are usually not well distinguished. The identification of ecosystems vulnerable (at risk for damage) or sensitive (high degree of response) to acid deposition is very important if policy makers are to derive cost-effective pollutioncontrol strategies. In this paper, the relative vulnerability andsensitivity of soils in China are assessed on the basis of soil base saturation and cation exchange capacity. Vulnerable and sensitive soils, as well as the risks associated with acid deposition, are identified. The characteristics of these two types of soils and their responses to acid deposition are discussed. Finally, results obtained by using different approaches are compared. The results show that the most vulnerable areas are located mainly in Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Sichuan provinces andin the southern part of Yunnan province. On the other hand, themost sensitive areas are located mainly in Zhejiang, Jiangxi, Hunan, and Fujian provinces and in the northern part of Yunnanprovince. Combining the distribution of vulnerability and sensitivity with the sulfur deposition shows that the areas around Chongqing City and central Guizhou province are at highrisk for damage by acid deposition; central Zhejiang province andthe boundary region between Hunan and Jiangxi provinces would be at high risk for a high rate of acidification if acid depositionwere to increase.     

A Numerical Simulation of Acid Deposition in East Asia

The goal of the present study is to do a long term simulation and to derive a source receptor-relation using a comprehensive Eulerian acid deposition model coupled with a dynamic meteorological model. The selected modeling period is from March 1 to April 30, 1996. A dynamic meteorological model named MM5 was first used to calculate meteorological fields and then STEM preprocessors were invoked to generate dry deposition velocities and eddy diffusivities. Finally, a multi-scale STEM was applied to simulate both wet and dry acid deposition phenomena. The source-receptor relations were also estimated for sulfate and nitrate species using a counter species method. The model results for SO₂ and O₃ agree very well with measurements. However the model under-predicts the NO₂ concentration due to insufficient grid resolution as well as due to inaccurate field measurement. The transport contribution for total mass and wet deposition is much larger than that of dry deposition.     

腐植酸对水溶液中丁草胺光化学降解的影响

采用紫外光照射的方法研究了腐植酸对丁草胺光降解特性的影响。结果表明,潮土腐植酸对丁草胺的光降解具有明显的抑制。潮土腐植酸浓度较低（〈10mg·L^-1）时,随腐植酸浓度的增加,对丁草胺光降解的抑制作用越强,丁草胺光降解速率越低;当潮土腐植酸的浓度≥10mg·L^-1时,腐植酸浓度的变化对丁草胺光降解的抑制作用影响不大,20mg·L^-1腐植酸与10mg·L^-1腐植酸对丁草胺光降解的影响相近。不同腐植酸对丁草胺光降解的抑制作用不同,商品腐植酸对丁草胺光降解抑制作用较强,潮土腐植酸和黑土腐植酸对丁草胺光降解的抑制作用则相对较弱。这种现象可能是由腐植酸的纯度和腐植酸本身结构特性的差异造成的。     

Monitoring Acid Waters in the UK: 1988–1998 Trends

Since 1988, a network of lakes and streams has been monitored in areas of the UK sensitive to surface water acidification. Analysis of 10 years data has focused on the identification and quantification of time-trends in chemical parameters, to establish whether declines in emission of acidifying pollutants have resulted in recovery of acidified surface waters. A national decline in S deposition in the UK since 1988 has not generally been accompanied by a significant improvement in freshwater chemistry. At the three sites where xSO₄ concentrations have declined, NO₃ has increased and there has been no increase in pH or alkalinity. Upward trends in pH and alkalinity observed at several other sites are not associated with downward trends in acidic anions. Temporal variation in xSO₄, NO₃, acidity, DOC and other important meaures of surface water quality can all be linked to decadal-scale variation in climate, and this has important implications for the detection of recovery-related trends.     

Acid Deposition and Critical Load Map of Tokyo

Acid deposition has been monitored in the natural vegetation of the western part of Tokyo, especially in the Okutama Mountains and surrounding areas. However, it is difficult to grasp the condition of acid deposition and the possible impacts on the vegetation in the whole area. Therefore, we attempted to make gridded acidic deposition maps and critical load maps. The grid size was 30 seconds latitude and 45 seconds longitude. Monthly wet deposition in the fiscal year of 1997 was calculated by multiplying concentration of wet deposition and precipitation. Concentration of wet deposition was estimated by averaging the data monitored at the nearest three stations with the inverse of distance as the weight. Precipitation was estimated by step-wise multiple regression with geographical factors as explanatory variables. Critical loads were estimated using the steady-state mass balance model with some modifications. As result, it was found that sulfur deposition had exceeded in most of the western part of Tokyo.     

Effects of Acid Deposition on Urushi Lacquer in East Asia

Urushi (Japanese lacquer) plates were exposed to indoor air in 7 cities in East Asia from summer 1995 through winter 1997. The plates, collected every 3 months, were optically observed by using a gloss meter, a digital microscope and a microscopic infrared spectrophotometer for evaluation of a seasonal impact by acidic air pollutants. The gloss losses were high on the urushi surface in autumn, when fog frequently appeared. Numerous fine spots were observed in 0.2–0.3 mm in diameter on the surfaces of the plates exposed at Chongqing, China, Taejon, Korea and Nara, Japan, where dense fog occurred. The spots were dark and opaque at Chongqing, where heavy air pollution was observed. A dark and opaque core was observed in each semitransparent spot at Taejon and Nara, while no spots were observed at Kyoto and Ishikawa, where fog often appeared but air pollution was at a low level. Carbonyl group, identified by microscopic infrared spectrometry, was found in the spots on the urushi surfaces. The carbonyl group may be formed by oxidation of a side-chain in urushiol (a major component of urushi sap, alkyl phenol). Urushi lacquer may be damaged by high concentration of sulfate anion, included in acid fog.     

Calculating Critical Loads of Sulfur Deposition for 100 Surface Waters in China Using the Magic Model

Although decades of acid deposition have apparently not resulted in surface water acidification in China, some surface waters may have the potential trend of being acidified, especially those in southern China. In this paper, a dynamic acidification model–MAGIC was applied to 100 surface waters in southern and northeastern China to evaluate the impact of acid deposition to surface waters and to determine their critical loads of S deposition, both regions having distinguishing soil, geological and acid deposition characteristics. Results indicate that most surface waters included in this paper are not sensitive to acid deposition, with critical loads of S for these waters comparatively high. On the other hand, surface waters in southern China, especially those in Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangdong provinces, are more susceptible to acidification than those in northeastern China, which coincides with their different patterns of soil, geological and acid deposition conditions. Among all the waters, a few small ponds, such as those on top of the Jinyun mountain and Emei mountain, are the most sensitive to acid deposition with critical loads of 1.84 and 3.70 keq·ha^?1·yr^?1, respectively. For the considerable ANC remaining in most 100 surface waters, it is not likely that acidification will occur in the near future for these waters.     

Renewable Resource-Based Magnetic Nanocomposites for Removal and Recovery of Phosphorous from Contaminated Waters

Water pollution by P (phosphorous) is a serious water-related issue being faced by mankind during the past two decades. Several technologies already exist to remove P from contaminated water, but each has its own drawbacks. The present paper discusses a novel microwave-assisted synthesis of reduced iron oxide containing renewable-resource-based media for P removal from contaminated waters. It provides a fast, easy, and economical way to produce reduced iron oxide nanocomposites without requiring the need for hydrogen or inert gas during the transformation. A wide range of other metal/ carbon nanocomposites can also be synthesized using this technology and therefore holds tremendous economic promise. The prepared media were highly effective and efficient in removing P. A 100?% P removal efficiency was attained using a 1?mg/L standard P stock solution and a maximum capacity of 43.7?mg P/g of composite was achieved using 500?mg/L standard P stock solution. The present technology is highly economical as the carbon source employed was a renewable resource media with a high regeneration capacity. The present technology may also be used for arsenic removal from similarly contaminated water. The method of preparation of media, treatment methodology, and characterization methods are also discussed.     

Heterogeneous Atmospheric Nitrogen Deposition Effects Upon the Nitrate Concentration of Stream Waters in a Forested Mountain Area

Nitrogen compounds generated by anthropogenic combustion deposits in forest watersheds and induce nitrogen saturation of the area. Because excess nitrogen is derived from atmospheric deposition, this action is expected to uniformly affect a wide area of forest soils. Geographically, heterogeneous nitrate concentration of stream water within a small area has been attributed to the tree type, geological setting and tree cut. In this article, we hypothesized that the effect of the atmospheric nitrogen deposition in the forest watershed may vary within a small area, and that such variation is induced by the degree of air mass containing a high concentration of nitrogen deposition of combustion origin. We measured major ion concentrations, including nitrate, nitrite oxygen and nitrogen stable isotope of nitrate sampled at 24 water streams in the Chichibu region, which is 50?C100 km from the Tokyo metropolitan area. The nitrate concentration showed a wide range (25.6?C237 ??mol L^?1) within 300 km², which was explained sufficiently by the air mass advection path and its contact with the mountain??s surface. The nitrate concentration showed a significant positive correlation with chloride (r?=?0.73; p?<?0.001). As chloride originates outside of the Chichibu region, the positive correlation between two ions showed that the nitrate concentration of the stream water was affected by the nitrogen compound from the Tokyo Metropolitan area as a form of atmospheric deposition. Between the nitrate concentration and the stable isotope ratio of oxygen of nitrate, there was a positive correlation until nitrate concentration of 100 ??mol L^?1. When the nitrate is over 100 ??mol L^?1, ??¹⁸O shows a stable value of ca. 5.7??. This indicates that the nitrification proceeds when the nitrate concentration was low to middle, but the reaction slowed when the nitrate concentration became high. Oxygen stable isotope of nitrate along with a set of nitrate concentrations can be used as a good indicator of nitrogen saturation.     

Dry and Wet Deposition of Nitrogen Emitted in Buenos Aires City to Waters of de la Plata River

Dry and wet deposition of atmospheric nitrogen species (NO₂ and HNO₃) coming from nitrogen oxides emissions in Buenos Aires city to surface waters of de la Plata River were estimated. Atmospheric dispersion models DAUMOD-RD (v.2) and CALPUFF were applied to area and point sources, respectively. These models were run considering 1 year of hourly meteorological data. Emission information included a typical diurnal variation of area source emissions. Annual atmospheric nitrogen (N–NO₂?+?N–HNO₃) deposition to 1,763 km² of the river was 35,600 kg-N year^?1. Dry deposition processes accounted for 89% of this value. The small contribution of wet deposition was a consequence of the very few cases (5%) of rain events during offshore wind conditions. Monthly dry deposition to 1,763 km² of the river varied from 1,628 kg-N month^?1 in February to 3,799 kg-N month^?1 in December, following the monthly occurrence of offshore winds. Monthly wet deposition varied from 1 kg-N month^?1 in June to 1,162 kg-N month^?1 in February. These results came from the combination of favorable conditions for formation of HNO₃ and the occurrence of precipitation during offshore wind situations. Spatial distribution of annual atmospheric N deposition showed a strong coastal gradient. Deposition values reached a maximum of 137.1 kg-N km^?2 year^?1 near the shoreline, which was reduced to the half at 4 km from the coast.     

Genotoxicity in German Surface Waters - Results of a Collaborative Study

As surface waters are widely used for the preparation of drinking water, appropriate test systems are required for the monitoring of possible genotoxic contaminations. In the course of a BMBF-funded collaborative project several methods (Ames test, umu test, alkaline elution, DNA unwinding assay, Comet assay and unscheduled DNA-synthesis test) have been examined for their ability to measure genotoxicity particularly in natural surface waters. The project was subdivided into two parts: In the first part appropriate test versions were developed (sensitized Ames test, luminometric umu test, alkaline elution using clams, Comet assay with fish cells or aquatic plants), adapted to the test subject and validated regarding their sensitivity towards standard genotoxins. All test results were statistically evaluated. In the course of the second part both natural and concentrated samples of the rivers Rhine, Elbe, Mulde, Wupper and one drinking water resource (Wahnbachbarrage) were tested. In parallel all samples were chemically analyzed. Among the unconcentrated samples several statistically positive test results were obtained both for the rivers Elbe and Rhine especially with the Ames test and the Comet assay. Only one river (Wupper) showed significant genotoxicity in the umu test. In this case chemical analysis revealed concentrations of about 41 and 47 µg/l of fluoroquinolonic acid, a bacterial gyrase inhibitor which may be responsible for this effect. No genotoxicity could be found in the drinking water resource even after concentration. The water extracts clearly showed different background genotoxicity in the umu test corresponding to increased pollution along the Rhine (Karlsruhe < K ln < D sseldorf). The eucaryotic in vitro tests revealed comparable results with nonconcentrated water samples. As a conclusion of the study we propose a graduated testing battery consisting of a bacterial (umu or Ames test) and an eucaryotic test like the Comet assay or the alkaline elution assay followed by an additional eucaryotic test (UDS test or micronucleus test) in a decisive function. There is a need for further evaluation by effect-orientated chemical analysis which should be done in the case of positive genotoxicity results in at least two tests or persistent positive results in only one.     

Mapping of Acid Deposition Effects and Calculation of Corrosion Costs on Zinc in China

Corrosion damage to materials including objects of cultural heritage due to acid deposition has been shown to cause large costs in several studies in Europe and in the United States. So far no similar extensive studies have been performed in developing countries. The World Bank has therefore initiated and financed a study of the corrosion costs in China based on available data in the literature and obtained through contacts and visits to several institutes and organisations in China. An initial assessment of the corrosion costs in China due to acidifying pollutants has been performed using a model originally developed and applied in Europe, which has been adapted to conditions in China. Here, the model is described using zinc as an example. In the calculation of corrosion costs it is assumed that the stock of materials at risk can be allocated to census data, which enables a separate calculation of the cost for each province in China. The significant differences in corrosion attack is illustrated for zinc with a corrosion map of China based on environmental data and a dose-response function adapted for Chinese conditions including the dry and wet acid deposition effects as separate terms.     

重庆缙云山酸沉降背景下针阔混交林水化学特征初步研究

选取三峡库区缙云山小流域针阔混交林作为研究对象,对其大气降水、穿透雨、树干茎流、地表径流等水文过程中的pH值及Na+、K+、Ca2+、Mg2+等离子含量进行研究,结果表明:(1)大气降水pH值为5.31,呈酸性,已属于酸雨范围(pH<5.65)。相对于大气降水,针阔混交林穿透雨和树干茎流离子含量均大幅增加。穿透雨和树干茎流中,Mg、Cu元素的变异系数均小于大气降水,而K、Zn和Mn均大于大气降水。地表径流中Ca元素含量最高,为16.416mg/L,Mn元素含量最低,几乎检测不到。各元素含量排序为:Ca>K>Na>Mg>Zn>Fe>Cu>Mn。地下径流中,Ca元素是含量增加最多的养分元素,各元素含量排序为:Ca>K>Na>Mg>Zn>Cu>Fe=Mn。(2)Cu元素在穿透雨和树干茎流中均出现了负淋溶,其余各元素浓度均有所增加。如果林木长期处于酸雨逆境下,将会导致部分营养元素大量流失,并最终造成林木营养亏损且影响其生长。     

Atmospheric Deposition in a Rural Area in India - Net and Potential Acidity

Atmospheric deposition in India is generally described as alkaline and well buffered against an increase of acidifying components. Such conclusion has been based on measurements usually performed in urban or suburban areas. Our data on deposition in NE India (in the countryside N of Bhubaneswar) obtained with wet-only and bulk collectors show that: 1) the weighted mean concentrations (and wet deposition) of H⁺ and HCO₃ ^? are almost equal, with dustfall contributing a negligible amount of HCO₃ ^?, 2) the deposition of potential acidity, defined as the acidity that would give the same acidity contribution to the receiving surface as the actual deposition provided that all ammonium was converted to nitrate in the soil, could be as high as 40 mmol H⁺ m^?2 a^?1 corresponding to a pH of 4.3 in precipitation. The low buffer capacity against acidification and high potential acidity were discovered from long- term measurements in a vegetation covered rural area. Similar measurements in a nearby suburban area gave a much higher input of HCO₃ ^? both in wet deposition and dustfall. Further increase of the emission of acidifying components in the region will increase the acid deposition.     

Nitrification and Methane Oxidation in Forest Soil: Acid Deposition, Nitrogen Input and Plant Effects

In a laboratory incubation experiment, nitrification potential, methane oxidation, N₂O and CO₂ release were studied in the organic soil layer (0–10 cm) of field lysimeters containing re-established soil profiles from a 100-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) forest of Norway. The experiment was designed as a full factorial (3 factors; N fertilisation rates, soil acidification, and plants), with three replicates. The more acidic irrigation (pH 3) significantly reduced nitrification potential and N₂O fluxes, methane oxidation and CO₂ release. We concluded that the reduction in soil N₂O release by severe acid deposition is partly due to reduction in nitrification potential. The highest N₂O fluxes were observed in the combination of fertilised planted and less acidic pH treatment. N fertilisation (90 kg N ha^?1 y^?1 with NH₄NO₃) increased soil N₂O release by a factor of 8 and decreased CH₄ oxidation by 60–80%. Plant effects on soil nitrification potential and methane oxidation rates are discussed.     

A presentation of the Norwegian project ‘Acid precipitation — Effects on forest and fish’

The joint research project, ‘Acid Precipitation — Effects on Forest and Fish‘ (the SNSF-project) of the Agricultural Research Council of Norway and the Norwegian Council for Scientific and Industrial Research was started in 1972. The objectives of the project are to: (1) establish as precisely as possible the effects of acid precipitation on forest and freshwater fish; and (2) investigate the effects of air pollutants on soil, vegetation, and water, required to satisfy point 1. Research activities on the project are organized and carried out mainly at four institutes. Within and between these institutes groups are formed carrying out investigations in fields including atmospheric transport and chemistry, dry deposition and leaching of foliage, forest growth, soil biology and soil chemistry, hydrological relationships of peatland, hydrobiology with special stress on fish, and hydrochemistry including snow chemistry.