Addressing the interplay of poverty and the ecology of landscapes: a Grand Challenge Topic for landscape ecologists?

We argue for the landscape ecology community to adopt the study of poverty and the ecology of landscapes as a Grand Challenge Topic. We present five areas of possible research foci that we believe that landscape ecologists can join with other social and environmental scientists to increase scientific understanding of this pressing issue: (1) scale and poverty; (2) landscape structure and human well-being; (3) social and ecological processes linked to spatial patterns in landscapes; (4) conservation and poverty, and (5) applying the landscape ecologist’s toolkit. A brief set of recommendations for landscape ecologists is also presented. These include the need to utilize broad frameworks that integrate social and ecological variables, build capacity to do this kind of work through the development of strong collaborations of researchers in developed and developing countries, create databases in international locations where extreme poverty exists, and create a new generation of researchers capable of addressing this pressing social and environmental issue.     

The ocean ‘landscape’

The ocean has a complex physical structure at all scales in space and time, with peaks at certain wave numbers and frequencies. Pelagic ecosystems show regular progressions in size of organisms, life cycle, spatial ambit, and trophic status. Thus, physiological and ecological parameters are closely coupled to spatial and temporal physical scales.     

Residents’ preferences for cultural services of the landscape along the urban–rural gradient

Cultural services of the landscape contribute to a higher quality of life. The provision of these services differs along the urban–rural gradient, as does their appreciation by local residents. This paper investigates residents’ preferences for cultural services along the urban–rural gradient through a map-based survey in and around the Dutch city of Maastricht. We focus on the importance of location in explaining these preferences, distinguishing the location of residents (relative to the preferred landscape units) and the location of landscape units (relative to their positions on the urban–rural gradient). The study shows that residents prefer nearby locations for all distinguished cultural services. Locations’ valuation along the urban–rural gradient, however, differs by service type: for cultural heritage locations near the city centre are preferred, while outdoor recreation and sports and passive enjoyment of green landscapes are enjoyed more in rural areas. When considering the spatial distribution of the land-use types that provide these services, we further find that people prefer green areas closer to the city for outdoor recreation and sports and passive enjoyment of green landscapes. The results illustrate the heterogeneity of people’s preferences for cultural services along the urban–rural gradient beyond the distance from their residences. We recommend policy makers to take the urban–rural gradient into account when valuating landscape units, and in particularly the importance of green landscape units close to the city for different cultural services.     

Combining farmers’ decision rules and landscape stochastic regularities for landscape modelling

Landscape spatial organization (LSO) strongly impacts many environmental issues. Modelling agricultural landscapes and describing meaningful landscape patterns are thus regarded as key-issues for designing sustainable landscapes. Agricultural landscapes are mostly designed by farmers. Their decisions dealing with crop choices and crop allocation to land can be generic and result in landscape regularities, which determine LSO. This paper comes within the emerging discipline called “landscape agronomy”, aiming at studying the organization of farming practices at the landscape scale. We here aim at articulating the farm and the landscape scales for landscape modelling. To do so, we develop an original approach consisting in the combination of two methods used separately so far: the identification of explicit farmer decision rules through on-farm surveys methods and the identification of landscape stochastic regularities through data-mining. We applied this approach to the Niort plain landscape in France. Results show that generic farmer decision rules dealing with sunflower or maize area and location within landscapes are consistent with spatiotemporal regularities identified at the landscape scale. It results in a segmentation of the landscape, based on both its spatial and temporal organization and partly explained by generic farmer decision rules. This consistency between results points out that the two modelling methods aid one another for land-use modelling at landscape scale and for understanding the driving forces of its spatial organization. Despite some remaining challenges, our study in landscape agronomy accounts for both spatial and temporal dimensions of crop allocation: it allows the drawing of new spatial patterns coherent with land-use dynamics at the landscape scale, which improves the links to the scale of ecological processes and therefore contributes to landscape ecology.     

Resolving the Parentage of the Apple Cultivar ‘Meran’

In the mid-1970s, a new apple variety named ‘Meran’ was discovered in South Tyrol (northern Italy), which harbours the largest continuous apple growing area in Europe. The cultivar was registered for varietal protection and patented in several countries, and was declared to be a cross of the varieties ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Morgenduft’ (synonym ‘Rome Beauty’). The parentage of ‘Meran’ has, however, been questioned, and the present study aimed to assess the descent of this cultivar by the combined use of molecular genetic and bioinformatic tools. Five accessions of ‘Meran’ were collected from three different European germplasm collections and analysed at 14 variable microsatellite DNA loci. Subsequently, computer software was used to allocate the most likely parent pair from a set of cultivars representative for the apple growing area of South Tyrol in 1975. The molecular genetic data clearly excluded ‘Morgenduft’ as a gene donor to ‘Meran’ and provided strong evidence that ‘Meran’ is a cross of the cultivars ‘Golden Delicious’ and ‘Jonathan’, confirming previous assumptions based on morphological traits of the tree and fruit.     

How has the state-of-the-art for quantification of landscape pattern advanced in the twenty-first century?

Landscape Ecology - Landscape ecology was founded on the idea that there is a reciprocal relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes. I provide a retrospective look at how the...     

Analysis of S-alleles by PCR for determination of compatibility in the ‘Red Delicious’ apple orchard

Summary

In a previous study, the apple ‘Jonathan’ was shown to be semi-compatible with the ‘Topred’ sport of ‘Red Delicious’, the main cultivar in Israel. This incompatibility led to reduced pollination potency, explaining the low yield obtained from ‘Topred’ rows adjacent to ‘Jonathan’. Hence, the importance of identifying the level of compatibility for all ‘Topred’ pollinators became apparent. By analysing S-allele by PCR with primers for the various S-alleles of the cultivars in the ‘Topred’ orchard, including S10 and S28, which were cloned in this study, it was evident that apart from ‘Jonathan’, the common pollinators for ‘Topred’ are fully compatible with it. The ability to identify all S-alleles in the ‘Topred’ orchard was also utilized to resolve the observation that, although ‘Topred’ is considered self-incompatible, self-pollinated, net-caged, ‘Topred’ flowers set some fruit. Applying PCR-analysis of S-alleles to the progeny of the suspected self-pollinated ‘Topred’ fruit revealed that the fruit-set was the outcome of cross-pollination, perhaps the consequence of fertilization by wind carried pollen. Hence, the notion that ‘Topred’ is totally self-incompatible was confirmed and the efficiency of progeny PCR S-allele analysis for the determination of the pollen donor was exhibited.     

Allerton Park 1983: the beginnings of a paradigm for landscape ecology?

In 1983, a group of incipient landscape ecologists met to discuss the nature and future directions for landscape ecology. The themes emerging from this conference—movement of materials, organisms, and energy through a landscape; the genesis of landscape patterns; the effects of landscape structure on the spread of disturbances; and the potential contributions of landscape ecology to resource management—established a foundation for the development of landscape ecology in North America over the following decades. I discuss these contributions in the light of where landscape ecology is today.

Do small-grain processes matter for landscape scale questions? Sensitivity of a forest landscape model to the formulation of tree growth rate

Process-based forest landscape models are valuable tools for testing basic ecological theory and for projecting how forest landscapes may respond to climate change and other environmental shifts. However, the ability of these models to accurately predict environmentally-induced shifts in species distributions as well as changes in forest composition and structure is often contingent on the phenomenological representation of individual-level processes accurately scaling-up to landscape-level community dynamics. We use a spatially explicit landscape forest model (LandClim) to examine how three alternative formulations of individual tree growth (logistic, Gompertz, and von Bertalanffy) influence model results. Interactions between growth models and landscape characteristics (landscape heterogeneity and disturbance intensity) were tested to determine in what type of landscape simulation results were most sensitive to growth model structure. We found that simulation results were robust to growth function formulation when the results were assessed at a large spatial extent (landscape) and when coarse response variables, such as total forest biomass, were examined. However, results diverged when more detailed response variables, such as species composition within elevation bands, were considered. These differences were particularly prevalent in regions that included environmental transition zones where forest composition is strongly driven by growth-dependent competition. We found that neither landscape heterogeneity nor the intensity of landscape disturbances accentuated simulation sensitivity to growth model formulation. Our results indicate that at the landscape extent, simulation results are robust, but the reliability of model results at a finer resolution depends critically on accurate tree growth functions.     

Identifying the optimum thinning time for red ‘Fuji’ apples

Two trials assessed the relationship between time of spray application and the effectiveness of naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) or ethephon on thinning of red ‘Fuji’ apples. In particular the effectiveness of sprays at, before, or just after full bloom (FB) were assessed. Both NAA and ethephon were effective thinners at FB. The thinners differed in efficacy with time; NAA was less effective before and after FB, ethephon was efficient before FB but this thinning power declined over time linearly, becoming ineffective 5-6 d after full bloom (DAFB) Thinning effectiveness was reflected in improved mean fruit weight and size. With NAA, increasing the concentration from 10 to 20 mg P1 did not improve fruit thinning. Whereas NAA sprays 5-10 DAFB reduced pip numbers to fewer than the controls, ethephon sprays did not result in such large reductions. It was concluded that the most effective time to thin red ‘Fuji’ was at or near FB. This recommendation is firm for ethephon but further clarification is needed for NAA. This conclusion supports some work for other cultivars. However, the problem of the preoccupation with fruit set by many orchardists in countries with climates cooler than Australia is recognized as a continuing problem for the recommendation for such general early use of thinners.     

Use of organic agricultural wastes as growing media for the production of Anthurium andraeanum ‘Pink Lady’

Summary

The conventional organic growing medium used for anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum) production is peat. Quality peat, however, is costly and is a non-renewable natural resource. The current study compared the suitability of using charred and composted organic agricultural wastes (OAW) vs. sphagnum peat as components of various growth media for the ornamental plant, anthurium (A. andraeanum ‘Pink Lady’). Ten different media were prepared from composted corn cobs (C), charred corn cobs (CC), charred garden waste (CG), and Pindstrup? sphagnum peat moss (P) in various proportions. The media contained [on a % (v/v) basis]: C (100%), CC (100%), CG (100%), C (70%) + CG (30%), CC (70%) + CG (30%), C (35%) + CG (15%) + P (50%), CC (50%) + P (50%), CC (35%) + CG (15%) + P (50%), C (50%) + P (50%), or P (100%) as a control. After 15 months in a greenhouse, the growth and flowering of transplanted anthurium plants were optimal using P, CC+P, or CC+CG+P.These results indicate that mixing charred OAW with peat could provide a suitable medium for anthurium production, thereby reducing the need for peat and converting agricultural waste material into useful products.     

Vegetation establishment on ‘Green Walls’: Integrating shotcrete walls from road construction into the landscape

The establishment of a sustainable vegetation layer on shotcrete walls subjected to road environment represents enormous challenges. High inclination of almost 90°, the exposed position of the walls near streets as well as lack of soil and water supply pose major limiting conditions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of an innovative greening technology for vertical structures in terms of vegetation development on varying plant substrates and geotextiles.The field experiment included testing three plant substrates on basis of nearby rocky excavation material (‘Innsbrucker Quarzphyllit’, ‘Bündnerschiefer’ and ‘Zentralgneis’) combined with compost. Additionally, five geotextiles (geogrid (3x4 mm), geogrid (9x10 mm), coir net, coir mat, geo mat) were applied for assessment. All test combinations were evaluated regarding vegetation cover, species composition, and biomass production from 2015 to 2016. Analyses of chemical properties were conducted for all plant substrates.Results showed highest vegetation cover ratio on ‘Bündnerschiefer’ and ‘Innsbrucker Quarzphyllit’, which can be explained by the favorable mineral composition (nutrient storage capacity) and chemical properties of compost (lower values of electrical conductivity and C/N ratio).In conclusion, the use of ‘Green Walls’ filled with ‘Bündnerschiefer’ or ‘Innsbrucker Quarzphyllit’ plant substrate in combination with netlike geotextiles like geogrid or coir net proved best. They are promising in terms of establishing an optimal vegetation cover on vertical structures and are well suited for integrating shotcrete walls into the landscape. The use of local excavation material for greening purposes thus can be confirmed. Though, the use of high-quality compost is crucial.     

Preliminary trials to examine the effects of ethephon as a thinner of ‘Gala’ and ‘Jonagold’ apples

Trials in southern Tasmania examined the thinning effects of ethephon on ‘Gala’ and ‘Jonagold’ apples. Untreated controls were compared with ethephon thinning sprays applied at full bloom at 50,100,200,400,800 and 1 600 mg I“1 to both cultivars. Thinning of both cultivars was related to the concentration of the spray and in most cases logistic models were fitted. Thinning effectiveness was largely reflected in increased fruit weight and size. The ‘Gala’ fruit was still not large enough for Australian markets. Ethephon at 200 mg I“1 effectively thinned ‘Jonagold’ and produced the required increases in fruit size and weight. ‘Jonagold’ was overthinned by the high concentrations of ethephon, but this was not reflected in increased fruit weight and size. Ethephon also reduced vegetative growth at the higher concentrations which was considered an advantage. More work is required to establish specific recommendations for either cultivar.     

Characterisation of the thermodormancy response in the everbearing strawberry ‘Everest’.

Summary

Temperature regimes that induce and ameliorate cropping troughs (“thermodormancy”) were evaluated over two seasons for the everbearing strawberry ‘Everest’. When plants were exposed to 26°C for 5, 10, 20 or 30 d in July, heat-induced troughs in cropping were observed in August. An important discovery was that cool (13°C) night temperatures ameliorated the severity of thermodormancy. In this study, thermodormancy appeared to be due principally to flower abortion post-anthesis, as large numbers of flowers emerged in mid-July, during the high temperature treatments, but went on to produce low fruit numbers in mid-August. Flower initiation itself (monitored by crown dissection) was not reduced by high temperatures. The observation that night-time temperature is critical for thermodormancy has significance for commercial production, in which protected cropping tends to increase average temperatures throughout the season, and venting tends to focus on day-time temperatures.     

Causes of leaf-tip scorch in the cultivated Protea hybrid ‘Sylvia’

Soil and leaf samples were analysed in an attempt to identify the causes of leaf-tip scorch commonly observed in cultivated Protea sussannae and Protea eximia hybrid ‘Sylvia’. Leaf-tip scorch was hypothesised to be caused by nutritional problems. Soil and leaf mineral contents were measured and compared between healthy plants and those suffering from leaf-tip scorch. Leaf-tip scorch was found to be associated with increase electrical conductivity, total cation concentration and the concentrations of Na, K, Ca, Mg, Mn and B in the soil. It was concluded that failed attempts of growers to remedy the problem by foliar spraying of micronutrients might have artificially increased the levels of Mn and B. Leaf-tip scorch was associated with decreased foliar concentrations of Fe and increased concentrations of Na and Mn. No association between leaf-tip scorch and either ∂¹³C or ∂¹⁵N was found. It was concluded that changes in water relations and N acquisition were not associated with the symptoms. The significant decrease in the Ca concentration in the tips of leaves showing advanced leaf-tip necrosis indicated that a deficiency of Ca in the leaf tips may have been the proximal cause of the pathology. Ca deficiency in the leaf tips may in turn be caused by high soil EC.     

A landscape vulnerability framework for identifying integrated conservation and adaptation pathways to climate change: the case of Madagascar’s spiny forest

Context

Integrated conservation decision-making frameworks that help to design or adjust practices that are cognisant of environmental change and adaptation are urgently needed.

Objective

We demonstrate how a landscape vulnerability framework combining sensitivity, adaptive capacity, and exposure to climate change framed along two main axes of concern can help to identify potential strategies for conservation and adaptation decision-making, using a landscape in Madagascar’s spiny forest as a case-study.

Methods

To apply such a vulnerability landscape assessment, we inferred the sensitivity of habitats using temporal and spatial botanical data-sets, including the use of fossil pollen data and vegetation surveys. For understanding adaptive capacity, we analysed existing spatial maps (reflecting anthropogenic stressors) showing the degree of habitat connectivity, matrix quality and protected area coverage for the different habitats in the landscape. Lastly, for understanding exposures, we used climate change predictions in Madagascar, together with a digital elevation model.

Results

The fossil pollen data showed how sensitive arid-adapted species were to past climate changes, especially the conditions between 1000 and 500 cal yr BP. The spatial analysis then helped locate habitats on the two-dimensional axes of concern integrating sensitivity, adaptive capacity and climate change exposure. By identifying resistant, resilient, susceptible, and sensitive habitats to climate change in the landscape under study, we identify very different approaches to integrate conservation and adaptation strategies in contrasting habitats.

Conclusion

This framework, illustrated through a case study, provides easy guidance for identifying potential integrated conservation and adaptation strategies, taking into account aspects of climate vulnerability and conservation capacity.

     

Prohexadione-calcium effects on the quality of ‘Royal Gala’ apple fruits

Summary

To study the effects of prohexadione-calcium (Pro-Ca) on fruit quality, an experiment was performed in 2002 in which trees were treated with two different concentrations of Pro-Ca and left with different crop-loads. Increasing levels of thinning resulted in smaller yields, but greater fruit sizes, which followed a curvilinear pattern when plotted against crop-load. The soluble solids content and titratable acidity of fruits decreased linearly with increasing crop-load. Fruit skin chromaticity values also changed. Luminescence increased, while a* values decreased linearly with increasing crop-load, indicating more reddish and darker coloured fruits on trees subjected to very heavy thinning. In addition, the concentrations of soluble sugars in fruits changed with the level of cropping; fructose and glucose concentrations increased with crop-load, while sorbitol and sucrose decreased. The application of Pro-Ca shortly after full-bloom inhibited shoot elongation growth, but did not result in changes in yield or in any of the fruit quality parameters analysed.     

Fragmentation of China’s landscape by roads and urban areas

China’s major paved road-ways (national roads, provincial roads, and county roads), railways and urban development are rapidly expanding. A likely consequence of this fast-paced growth is landscape fragmentation and disruption of ecological flows. In order to provide ecological information to infrastructure planners and environmental managers for use in landscape conservation, land-division from development must be measured. We used the effective-mesh-size (M_eff) method to provide the first evaluation of the degree of landscape division in China, caused by paved roads, railways, and urban areas. Using M_eff, we found that fragmentation by major transportation systems and urban areas in China varied widely, from the least-impacted west to the most impacted south and east of China. Almost all eastern provinces and counties, especially areas near big cities, have high levels of fragmentation. Several eastern-Chinese provinces and biogeographic regions have among the most severe landscape fragmentation in the world, while others are comparable to the least-developed areas of Europe and California. Threatened plant hotspots and areas with high mammal species diversity occurred in both highly fragmented and less fragmented areas, though future road development threatens already moderately divided landscapes. To conserve threatened biodiversity and landscapes, we recommend that national and regional planners in China consider existing land division before making decisions about further road development and improvement.