Why Is U.S. Poverty Higher in Nonmetropolitan than in Metropolitan Areas?

ABSTRACT In the U.S., people are more likely to be poor if they live in a nonmetropolitan (nonmetro) than in a metropolitan (metro) area. A common explanation for this phenomenon is that nonmetro places offer relatively few economic and social opportunities. This article explores another plausible explanation, asking if the disproportionate poverty in nonmetro areas partly reflects attitudes of people with personal attributes related to poverty: they may be attracted to nonmetro places or otherwise reluctant (or unable) to leave them. To test this hypothesis, data from nine waves of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) are used to track economic well‐being and nonmetro–metro residential choice among a sample of 2,007 low‐income householders. A series of multivariate regression models are estimated in which the dependent variable is a householder's income to need (adjusted for spatial cost‐of‐housing differences), and regressors are individual attributes, a binary variable for nonmetro residence, and state fixed‐effects. Regression results show that controlling for householder educational attainment reduces the negative association between nonmetro residence and income to need; but controlling for unobserved, time‐invariant heterogeneity via individual fixed‐effects increases the magnitude of this negative association. Study findings thus appear to indicate that enduring nonmetro poverty is explained both by a sorting of low human capital individuals into nonmetro areas and by reduced economic opportunities in nonmetro compared to metro places.     

Quality of Life and the Migration of the College‐Educated: A Life‐Course Approach

ABSTRACT This paper examines how the college‐educated population—segmented into selective demographic groups, from young adults to the elderly—differentially values quality‐of‐life (QOL) indicators of metropolitan areas in the United States. Using data from the 2000 Census and the 1997 Places Rated Almanac, out‐migration patterns are shown to depend jointly upon stage in the life course, the spatial‐demographic setting, and QOL characteristics. An abundance of cultural and recreational amenities lowers out‐migration rates of young college‐educated. For the older college‐educated population, the revealed preferences shift toward concerns for safety and a strong preference for milder climates. The study also finds significantly lower out‐migration rates for metropolitan areas with growing human capital. In light of shifting age distributions and rising educational attainment levels, the results have important implications for the emergence of new migration patterns and the concentration of human capital.     

Innovation in suburban development zones: Evidence from Nanjing,China

While suburban areas have been typically related with urban sprawl, low density, cheap land price and low‐end manufacturing industries, relatively little attention has been paid to the spatial organization of innovation in suburban areas. In some Chinese cities, development zones (kai fa qu) in their suburban areas which are generally regarded as major spaces for traditional manufacturing industries have been transforming into spaces for innovation. This paper provides a case study of Nanjing, the capital of Jiangsu province in Eastern China by investigating and explaining the learning and innovation processes in suburban development zones. Drawing upon a unique database on 733 state‐certified high‐tech firms in Nanjing from 2008 to 2012 which contains detailed information on their addresses and number of patents, we observe strong spatial disparity in the distribution of innovation. Suburban districts of Nanjing where its three national‐level development zones and many provincial‐level development zones are located have become major spaces for innovation of the city. The planning of industrial clusters in development zones, the place‐based investment in the suburbs, and the suburbanization of universities are three major mechanisms behind the learning and innovation processes in Nanjing’s suburban development zones.     

Changes in producer services location,Sydney: globalisation,technology and labour

This paper explores the distribution of producer services within Sydney in the context of globalisation, technological change and the location of labour. Four case study industries are analysed: management consultancy, general insurance, graphic design, and data processing. It is concluded that globalisation appears to have reinforced the traditional central city focus of Sydney’s producer services sector, although the producer services surveyed here have dispersed away from the CBD itself. Technological change in conjunction with residential preferences is expanding this focus in parts of the sector, particularly toward residential areas of professionals in less contact-intensive activities.     

Inequity on suburban campuses: University students disadvantaged in self-improvement travel

Many new university campuses have been built in suburban areas where transit and service facilities are negligible. However, few studies explore the educational and transportation equity issues related to campus location. Based on a 2017 survey comprising 1673 students on 37 campuses in Shanghai, this study applied multilevel models to examine the association between the built environment around campuses and university students' travel behaviors. In particular, we focused on the travel that students undertake for self-improvement activities (e.g., internships and education-related activities) because this type of travel plays an important role in improving students' abilities and promoting their career development. We found that students on suburban campuses, which are characterized by being farther away from the city center, being single land use, and having fewer transit services, engage in fewer and longer trips to self-improvement destinations. However, students studying on urban campuses, which are characterized by mixed land use and greater accessibility to the city center and subway service, engage in more frequent and shorter trips to self-improvement destinations. Therefore, students on suburban campuses are at a disadvantage regarding educational opportunities and access to transportation to engage in self-improvement activities off campus.     

Innovation and Regional Growth in Mexico: 2000–2010

This paper looks at the factors driving regional growth in Mexico, paying special attention to the potentially growth‐enhancing role of innovation and innovation policy. The analysis combines innovation variables with indicators linked to the formation of adequate social conditions for innovation (the social filter), and spillovers for 31 Mexican states and the Mexico City capital district (the Distrito Federal) during the period 2000–2010. The results indicate that regional economic growth across Mexican states stems from direct investment in research and development (R&D) in areas with favorable social filters and which can benefit not only from knowledge spillovers, but also from being surrounded by rich neighbors with good social conditions. The results stress that, although Mexican innovation policy has been relatively well targeted in order to generate greater economic growth, its relatively modest size may have undermined the attainment of its main objectives.     

Location choice of industrial land reduction in Metropolitan Area: Evidence from Shanghai in China

Under the background of supply side structural reform of the land market, this paper constructs a location choice behavior model of reduction from the perspective of rent maximization, explores how these factors affect the industrial land reduction location choice. We consider 100 industrial parcels in the suburbs of Shanghai as an example to analyze. It is found that the enterprises in development zones have greater advantages in economies of scale, labor productivity, pollution treatment, and tax payments than enterprises outside the development zone, so the low-efficiency enterprises outside the development zones are the preferred objects of reduction. The suburban areas have a stronger attraction than the outer suburbs in the process of location choice, and the closer the city center is, the more obvious the location advantages of enterprises in development zones. Under the control of the total amount of construction land, the land use structure should be constantly adjusted, inefficient enterprises outside the development zone should be preferred to the reduction object, and the government should actively guide enterprises to enter the development zones.     

Does Commuting Reduce Wage Disparities?

ABSTRACT This paper shows that in the Baltic countries, commuting reduces urban‐rural wage and employment disparities and increases national output. To quantify the effect of commuting on wage differentials, two sets of earnings functions are estimated (based on Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian Labor Force Surveys) with location variables (capital city, rural, etc.) measured at the workplace and at the place of residence. We find that the ceteris paribus wage gap between capital city and rural areas, as well as between capital and other cities is significantly narrowed by commuting in some cases but remains almost unchanged in others. Different outcomes are explained by country‐specific spatial patterns of commuting, educational and occupational composition of commuting flows, and presence or absence of wage discrimination against rural residents in urban markets. A treatment effects model is used to estimate individual wage gains to rural—urban or inter‐city commuting; these gains are substantial in most but not all cases. Wage effects of commuting distance, as well as impact of education, gender, ethnicity, and local labor market conditions on the commuting decision are also explored.     

Changes in the Appalachian Wage Gap, 1970 to 2000

ABSTRACT Since at least 1960, Appalachia has had lower wages, employment rates, and educational attainment than the rest of the country. Using a sample from the Integrated Public Use Microdata Series Census project, the author identifies factors affecting the wage gap between 1970 and 2000. The author finds that increases in educational attainment in Appalachia are counterbalanced by increasing returns to observable and unobservable skill, the decline of the manufacturing industry, and rising wage dispersion, leaving the wage gap for full‐time workers in 2000 at essentially the same levels as 1970.     

Skills across the Urban–Rural Hierarchy

This paper examines the vertical and horizontal dimensions of human capital across regions within the U.S., ranging from densely populated city centers to isolated and sparsely populated rural areas. To do so, we classify detailed geographic areas into categories along the entire urban–rural hierarchy. An occupation‐based cluster analysis is then used to complement the conventional measure of human capital, based on college attainment, by measuring the types of skills available in the regional workforce. We find that differences in human capital across the urban–rural hierarchy are related to both the types of work performed in urban and rural areas and that a higher share of college‐educated workers is present in urban areas regardless of the skills typically required to perform the job.     

Growth and Change in U.S. Cities and Suburbs

Differential rates of growth and decentralization are processes that characterized U.S. urban areas over the past three decades. This paper examines the determinants of growth in cities and suburbs during the 1970s, the 1980s, and the 1990s. The modeling approach adopted in the study allows for simultaneity between population and employment, and between cities and suburbs, while also taking into account a range of other explanatory factors. Results indicate that population and employment growth in cities tend to be jointly determined, but that growth of employment in the suburbs tends to drive growth of suburban population. Results also suggest that suburban and city growth are interrelated, but that the nature of these interrelationships varies over time: suburban growth promoted city growth during the 1970s and 1980s, while city and suburban growth were jointly determined during the 1990s. Other factors that consistently explain variation in city growth include demographics, population density, crime rates, and income inequality. Factors consistently explaining suburban growth include regional location and climate.     

Analysis of generation means and components of variance for parthenocarpy in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

Parthenocarpy (seedless fruit) has potential for increasing yield in cucumber (Cucumis sativus var. sativus L.). To determine the inheritance of parthenocarpy in gynoecious cucumber, P₁, P₂, F₁, F₂, BC₁P₁, and BC₁P₂ generations derived from crossing two non‐parthenocarpic gynoecious inbred lines [Gy8 (P₂; processing type) and ‘Marketmore 80’ (P₂; MM, fresh market type)] with a highly parthenocarpic inbred line [2A (P₁; processing type)] were evaluated for fruit number in a greenhouse at Arlington, Wisc. in 1999 (designated 2A × Gy8 1999) and in the open‐field at Hancock, Wisc. in 2000 (designated 2A × Gy8 2000 and 2A × MM 2000). There were significant location and location × generation interaction effects, and therefore generation means analyses were conducted separately for each location. The minimum numbers of effective factors controlling parthenocarpy were estimated to be at least one (2A × Gy8 1999), two (2A × Gy8 2000) and four (2A × MM 2000). Results suggest that selection for parthenocarpy for multiple hand harvest operations will likely be more effective than that for once‐over machine harvest operations. However, the selection efficiency will likely vary across different populations and environments.     

Estimating Employment‐Related Migration from Overlapping Migration and Commuting Networks

A U.S. county workplace‐to‐workplace or latent migration data set is generated from overlapping migration and commuting networks. The latent migration network is the estimated number of movers between places of work, which is then compared with the actual number of migrants between places of residence. This allows both employment‐related and amenity‐related migration and pull/push factors as causes of migration flows to be identified and contrasted. Certain counties and cities that are not important migration destinations (e.g., with <200,000 net in‐migrants between 1995 and 2000) according to official data are in fact important targets when additional in‐migrants who commute into surrounding counties also are considered. An econometric analysis is then used to examine whether different regressors have different effects on the residence‐ versus employment‐based migration patterns. This is a first assessment of whether or not the proposed approach has merit. Results are consistent with prior expectations regarding the factors that would motivate latent versus actual migration.     

The Shifting Destinations of Metropolitan Migrants in the U.S., 2005–2011

Recent estimates that central cities are growing faster than their suburbs in the U.S. have captured the attention of both academics and the popular media. Many commentators have used these numbers to claim that internal migration trends in the U.S. have reached a turning point, in which migrants increasingly prefer urban residences to suburban locales. However, these assertions often rely on problematic definitions of city and suburb, and pay too little attention to demographic variations among migrants. This paper examines whether recent internal migrants in the U.S. are choosing closer‐in destinations, drawing from microdata samples from the American Community Survey since 2005. During this period, there is an overall trend of migrants to the largest metropolitan areas in the U.S. choosing to migrate closer to the metropolitan core. However, this trend varies significantly among major demographic groups; whereas younger, single, educated, and white‐collar migrants show evidence of a return to the core, migrants who are blue‐collar, less‐educated, older, and with families remain more suburban. In turn, this analysis suggests that overall trends of “back to the city” migration are producing considerable divergence in the metropolitan destinations of different demographic groups.     

Screening recently identified whitefly/spider mite‐resistant wild tomato accessions for resistance to Tuta absoluta

The tomato leaf miner (Tuta absoluta) is a serious pest of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) in the tropics and subtropics. Previous World Vegetable Center studies identified selected accessions of S. galapagense, S. cheesmaniae and S. pimpinellifolium that were resistant to whitefly (Bemisia tabaci Genn.) and spider mite (Tetranychus urticae Koch). Here, we evaluated these accessions for resistance to T. absoluta based on the number of eggs from choice bioassays, and larval mortality and adults emerged percentages in no‐choice feeding bioassays at WorldVeg Eastern and Southern Africa (WorldVeg) and the International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe). At WorldVeg, S. galapagense VI063177 exhibited high resistance in both choice and no‐choice bioassays. There was strong negative correlation between larval mortality and adults emerged percentages in the no‐choice feeding bioassays. Results from the icipe experiments were consistent with those of the WorldVeg screening, except for S. pimpinellifolium accession VI030462 , which was susceptible at icipe. Tuta absoluta is rapidly spreading and the resistance sources reported here will be valuable in breeding tomato varieties resistant to this insect and others.     

Friendly Neighborhood Boundary Space Design

Residential area mode of China originates from "neighborhood unit" and "unit compound", they are isolated from the city and known as "islet" and "fragment". The isolation of residence from city breaks the urban structure, increases scale of blocks, and aggravates urban traffic and other problems. In view of this, it is imperative to explore the ways of designing "friendly neighborhood boundary spaces" between residential areas and the city, for example, by extending urban street spaces inward, opening boundary spaces of residential quarters to the city, constructing a boundary space network of residential areas harmoniously integrated into street life.     

Barnyard millet – a potential food and feed crop of future

The two species under genus Echinochloa, E. frumentacea (Indian barnyard millet) and E. esculenta (Japanese barnyard millet), are cultivated for food and fodder by hilly and tribal communities in Asia particularly in India, China and Japan. The crop has wide adaptability and occupies a special place in marginal rainfed areas because of its short life cycle. Although the area under the crop has come down drastically in last 50 years, the crop ability to survive under harsh conditions makes it a better choice during famine years. In the Indian Himalayan region, the crop was traditionally used as a substitute for rice. It has been identified as a suitable choice for climate‐resilient agriculture. High nutrient content and antioxidant effects make it to be considered as a functional food crop. Recently, the demand of the crop has increased due to its highly nutritious grains. Thus, it has the potential to provide both food and nutritional security particularly in hills where nutritional deficiencies are in abundance. Despite enormous potential, the crop has not gained the popularity among masses and is still considered as poor man's food. This work therefore is an attempt to compile the meagre information available on crop history, evolution, crop breeding and present status to make the crop competitive and revamp its cultivation.     

Residential Property Values and Community Right‐to‐Know Laws: Has the Toxics Release Inventory Had an Impact?

ABSTRACT This paper uses a cross‐sectional hedonic pricing model to investigate the relationship between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) data releases and the prices of single‐family residences within postal zip code areas situated in Omaha, Nebraska's Douglas County. The model employs demographic data from the 2000 Census, toxic chemical release data for the year 2000 from the EPA's TRI database, as well as other pollution variables for each of the zip code areas comprising Douglas County. The model also employs house‐specific data supplied by the Douglas County Assessor's Office on dwelling characteristics for homes sold in Douglas County in the year 2000. The findings indicate that, when controlling for relevant socioeconomic variables, TRI pollutant releases are significant determinants of residential housing values. The results should be of interest to anyone in the real estate industry, including tax assessors, appraisers, mortgage lenders, and property owners.     

The locus for resistance to Asian soybean rust in PI 587855

Asian soybean rust (ASR) caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi is one of the most serious soybean (Glycine max) diseases in tropical and subtropical areas. A soybean line, PI 587855, showed a resistance phenotype against ASR pathogens in Japan and South America at high frequency; however, little is known of the genetic control of this resistance and chromosomal location of the corresponding locus. Therefore, the aim of this study was to study the inheritance of PI 587855 resistance and map the corresponding locus with SSR markers aiming to use the linked markers in marker‐assisted selection. In the segregating population, resistance to ASR appeared to be controlled by a single dominant gene. The ASR resistance locus was mapped near to the chromosomal region where the resistant loci, Rpp1 and Rpp1‐b, were previously mapped. Comparative genetic mapping and disease reaction profiles of other seven lines carrying Rpp1 or Rpp1‐b to four Brazilian ASR isolates revealed that the resistance reaction exhibited by PI 587855 was similar to that of Rpp1‐b‐carrying varieties which have useful resistance to South American ASR strains.     

Relationship between European corn borer resistance and concentration of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp. in grains of transgenic Bt maize hybrids, their isogenic counterparts, and commercial varieties

The European corn borer (ECB), Ostrinia nubilalis Hb., is a major pest of maize in central Europe and promotes the infection of maize with Fusarium spp. In this study, transgenic Bt maize hybrids were compared with their isogenic counterparts, and with commercial hybrids from the recommended list with regard to their level of ECB resistance and their concentration of deoxynivalenol (DON), its 15‐acetyl (15‐A‐DON) and 3‐acetyl (3‐A‐DON) derivatives, nivalenol (NIV), fusarenon‐X (FUS‐X), fumonisins (FUM), and zearalenon (ZEN) in harvested grains. The field experiments were performed in Germany at four locations in 1999 and at five locations in 2000. Transgenic Bt hybrids showed significantly lower means than their corresponding isogenic counterparts and than commercial hybrids for all resistance traits: damage rating of stalks, number of larvae per plant, number of larvae per ear, and percentage of damaged plants or ears under infestation. Among all mycotoxins analysed, DON consistently showed the highest concentration across all year × location combinations. Mycotoxin concentrations varied significantly between locations, years and genotypes, whereas mycotoxin concentrations were not significantly different between infested and protected plots. Associations between ECB resistance traits and mycotoxin concentrations were not consistent across years. It is concluded that under central European conditions, the use of Bt maize hybrids will only slightly reduce the contamination of maize kernels with mycotoxins produced by Fusarium spp.