Use of a test day model for dairy goat milk yield across lactations in Germany.

Breeding value prediction for dairy goats in Germany is still based on herd mate comparison within breeding society. The objective of this study was to estimate genetic parameters for milk yield based on a test day model. For the analysis 35,308, 30,551 and 23,640 test day records from lactations 1, 2 and 3 from 5079, 4118 and 3132 animals, respectively, were used. The data between 1987 and 2003 were obtained from six German breeding societies. The multiple trait (lactations 1, 2 and 3) repeatability model (RPT) included the fixed effects of breeding society-breed-herd-year, litter size, lambing season, and days in milk of third-order Legendre polynomials nested within herd-year, and the random effects of animal additive and permanent environment. The three-trait random regression model (RR) also included the random regressions based on second-order Legendre polynomials for animal additive and permanent environmental effects. Heritability estimates in RPT were 0.27 +/- 0.02, 0.20 +/- 0.02 and 0.37 +/- 0.02 for the first, second and third lactation, respectively. The genetic correlation between the first and second lactation was 0.69, between the second and third lactation 0.79, and between the first and third lactation 0.45. Heritability estimates from the RR in the first and second lactations decreased from the beginning to the end of the lactation, with average values of 0.28 and 0.27, respectively. Estimates in the third lactation showed a maximum in the middle of lactation, averaging 0.37. Genetic correlations between the first and second lactation averaged 0.64, between the second and third lactation 0.72, and between the first and third lactation 0.46. Despite the small data set and restricted relationship structure the estimates were reasonable with the exception of estimates from the third lactation, which seemed inflated. RR could be used for genetic evaluation of dairy goats in Germany.     

Genetic analysis of the rates of conception using a longitudinal threshold model with random regression in dairy crossbreeding within a tropical environment

This study was designed to: (i) estimate genetic parameters and breeding values for conception rates (CR) using the repeatability threshold model (RP‐THM) and random regression threshold models (RR‐THM); and (ii) compare covariance functions for modeling the additive genetic (AG) and permanent environmental (PE) effects in the RR‐THM. The CR was defined as the outcome of an insemination. A data set of 130 592 first‐lactation insemination records of 55 789 Thai dairy cows, calving between 1996 and 2011, was used in the analyses. All models included fixed effects of year × month of insemination, breed × day in milk to insemination class and age at calving. The random effects consisted of herd × year interaction, service sire, PE, AG and residual. Variance components were estimated using a Bayesian method via Gibbs sampling. Heritability estimates of CR ranged from 0.032 to 0.067, 0.037 to 0.165 and 0.045 to 0.218 for RR‐THM with the second, third and fourth‐order of Legendre polynomials, respectively. The heritability estimated from RP‐THM was 0.056. Model comparisons based on goodness of fit, predictive abilities, predicted service results of animal, and pattern of genetic parameter estimates, indicated that the model which fit the desired outcome of insemination was the RR‐THM with two regression coefficients.     

Genetics of milk yield and fertility traits in Holstein-Friesian cattle on large-scale Kenyan farms

Purebred Holstein-Friesian cows are the main exotic breed used for milk production on large, medium, and small farms in Kenya. A study was undertaken on seven large-scale farms to investigate the genetic trends for milk production and fertility traits between 1986 and 1997 and the genetic relationships between the traits. This involved 3,185 records from 1,614 cows, the daughters of 253 sires. There was a positive trend in breeding value for 305-d milk yield of 12.9 kg/ yr and a drop in calving interval of 0.9 d/yr over the 11-yr period. Bulls from the United States (U.S.) had an average total milk yield breeding value 230 kg higher than the mean of all bulls used; Canada (+121 kg), Holland (+15 kg), the United Kingdom (U.K., 0 kg), and Kenya (-71 kg) were the other major suppliers of bulls. Average breeding values of bulls for calving interval by country of origin were -1.31 (Canada), -1.27 (Holland), -0.83 (U.S.), -0.63 (Kenya), and 0.68 d (U.K.). The genetic parameters for 305-d milk yield were 0.29 (heritability), 0.05 (permanent environment effect as proportion of phenotypic variance) resulting in an estimated repeatability of 0.34. Using complete lactation data rather than 305-d milk yield resulted in similar estimates of the genetic parameters. However, when lactation length was used as a covariate heritability was reduced to 0.25 and the permanent environment effect proportion increased to 0.09. There was little genetic control of either lactation length (heritability, 0.09) or calving interval (heritability, 0.05); however, there were strong genetic correlations between first lactation milk yield, calving interval, and age at first calving.     

产犊季节、胎次及牛场对荷斯坦牛泌乳性能的影响

本研究收集了3个千头以上奶牛场共8872条相关信息,采用多因素方差分析法分析了不同产犊季节、胎次和牛场对泌乳天数、305d校正奶量、305d脂肪产量、305d蛋白产量和全泌乳期产奶量5个泌乳性能指标的影响。结果表明,不同产犊季节、胎次和牛场都极显著影响奶牛的该5项泌乳性能（P〈0．01）。夏季和秋季产犊奶牛的泌乳性能较为理想。夏季产犊奶牛的泌乳天数和全泌乳期产奶量最高,其他三个泌乳性能指标都位居第二;秋季产犊奶牛的305d校正奶量、脂肪产量和蛋白产量都显著高于其他三个季节（P〈0．05）,泌乳天数和全泌乳期产奶量也仅次于夏季。头胎牛的各项泌乳性能都显著高于其他胎次的奶牛（P〈0．05）,其次为2胎产犊奶牛。随着胎次的增加,泌乳性能的各项指标都有不同程度的降低。不同的牛场极显著地影响奶牛的泌乳性能（P〈0．01）。     

Estimation of heterotic components for lactation traits and reproductive performance in three crossbreeding trials of Holstein cattle with German Friesian raised under hot climatic conditions

Lactation traits and reproductive performance of three trials of crossing Holstein cattle (H) and German Friesians (F) raised in a hot climatic were evaluated. The first 90-day (M90), 305-day (M305) and total milk yield (TMY), 305-day milk yield per day of calving interval (MCI1), total milk yield per day of calving interval (MCI2) along with length of lactation period (LP), age at first calving (AC1) and calving interval (CI) were used. For these traits, a genetic model was applied for each trial separately to obtain estimates of individual (G^I) and maternal (G^M) additive effects, individual (H^I) and maternal (H^M) heterosis and individual recombination effect (R^I). Data of 8045 normal lactations from the three trials were analysed. Among the crossbreds obtained in the three trials, cows of ¾H¼F ranked first in their lactational performance. Estimates of G^I and G^M were generally large and in favour of H cows (daughters) and dams for most milk-yield traits, CI and AC1 in the three trials. Estimates of H^I in crossbred cows for milk traits, CI and AC1 were mostly negative and reveal that crossing F with H was associated with a reduction in milk-yield traits, shorter CI and earlier AC1 along with longer LP in the three trials. Estimates of H^M for milk yields, LP, AC1 and CI in daughters of crossbred dams were mostly negative. Recombination losses in crossbred cows were negative for milk-yield traits, AC1 and CI in most cases.     

Genotype–environment interaction for age at first calving in buffaloes,using the reaction norm model

The objective of this study was to evaluate the genotype–environment interaction effect on age at first calving in buffaloes. The records were analysed using two approaches: (a) standard animal model and (b) reaction norm model. For the reaction norm analysis, two environmental gradients were formed, using age of first calving or milk yield group contemporary average. The results showed differences in the heritability estimates when using the two approaches. The reaction norm model indicated high heritability in more favourable environments and low magnitude genetic correlations between extreme environments. Based on our findings, we verified the significance of the genotype–environment interaction effect on age at first calving in buffaloes.     

Endocrine profiles of cows undergoing extended lactation in relation to the control of lactation persistency

We conducted an experiment in dairy cows investigating the effects of calving season, milking frequency and nutrition on lactation persistency. Cows calved in the Spring (n=12) or Winter (n=12). Commencing in lactation week 9 one udder-half of each cow was milked thrice-daily and half of each calving group received additional concentrate at a fixed rate of 3kg per day above that of the control cows. As reported elsewhere, between lactation weeks 9 and 33 persistency (measured as the slope of decline in milk yield) was significantly improved by frequent milking (P<0.001), by calving in the Winter (P<0.001) and by additional concentrate (P<0.05). The cows were rebred after week 33. When analysis of persistency was extended up to week 20 of the recurring pregnancy only the frequency effect remained significant. Persistency was unaffected by the pregnancy up until pregnancy week 20 but was then greatly reduced (P<0.001). In this paper we report hormone concentrations. GH was unaffected by nutrition but was consistently elevated in the Winter calving group relative to the Spring. IGF1 and prolactin were both unaffected by nutrition and calving season, IGF1 tended to increase as lactation progressed but changes in prolactin were related to time of year more than stage of lactation. Insulin was not affected by nutrition and was lower in Winter calvers, but only during early lactation. Prior to rebreeding, lactation persistency was correlated (slightly) with [GH] but not with [IGF1] or [insulin] and was correlated significantly with changes in GH, IGF1 (both positive) and insulin (negative). In conclusion, whilst bovine lactation persistency is plastic and amenable to beneficial manipulation, the details of its endocrine control remain to be elucidated.     

Genetic and phenotypic parameters and annual trends for milk production and fertility traits of the Sahiwal cattle in semi arid Kenya

Data comprising 7211 lactation records of 2894 cows were used to estimate genetic and phenotypic parameters for milk production (lactation milk yield, LMY and lactation length, LL) and fertility (calving interval, CI; number of services per conception, NSC and age at first calving, AFC) traits. Genetic, environmental and phenotypic trends were also estimated. Variance components were estimated using univariate, bivariate and trivariate animal models on based restricted maximum likelihood procedures. Univariate models were used for each trait, while bivariate models were used to estimate genetic and phenotypic correlations between milk production and fertility traits and between LMY, LL, CI and NSC within each lactation. Trivariate models were used in the analysis of LMY, LL, CI and NSC in the first three lactations. Heritability estimates from the univariate model were 0.16, 0.07, 0.03, 0.04 and 0.01 for LMY, LL, CI, AFC and NSC, respectively. The heritability estimates from trivariate analysis were higher for milk production traits than those from univariate analyses. Genetic correlations were high and undesirable between milk production and fertility traits, while phenotypic correlations were correspondingly low. Genetic trends were close to zero for all traits, while environmental and phenotypic trends fluctuated over the study period.     

产犊季节、胎次及牛场对荷斯坦牛泌乳性能的影响

[目的]研究产犊季节、胎次及不同牛场对奶牛泌乳性能的影响情况,以期为提高奶牛的泌乳性能及牛奶质量提供可靠的理论依据。[方法]收集3个千头以上奶牛场共8 872次相关信息,用多因素方差分析法分析产犊季节、胎次和牛场对泌乳天数、305d校正奶量、305d脂肪产量、305d蛋白产量和全泌乳期产奶量5个泌乳性能的影响进行分析。[结果]不同产犊季节、胎次和牛场都极显著影响奶牛的5项泌乳性能(P<0.01)。夏季和秋季产犊奶牛的泌乳性能较为理想。夏季产犊奶牛的泌乳天数和全泌乳期产奶量最高,其他三个泌乳性能都位居第二;秋季产犊奶牛的305d校正奶量、脂肪产量和蛋白产量都显著高于其他三个季节(P<0.05),泌乳天数和全泌乳期产奶量也仅次于夏季。头胎牛的各项泌乳性能都显著高于其他胎次的奶牛(P<0.05),其次为2胎产犊奶牛。随着胎次的增加,泌乳性能的各项指标都有不同程度的降低。除了泌乳天数之外,A牛场的各项泌乳性能都最佳,且显著高于B、C两个奶牛场(P<0.05)。[结论]在饲养条件良好的情况下,本研究中三个牛场的奶牛适宜在夏、秋两个季节产犊,此时泌乳性能较好;此外,头胎产犊奶牛的泌乳性能在各胎次中最高。     

Estimation of heterotic components for lactation traits and reproductive performance in three crossbreeding trials of Holstein cattle with German Friesian raised under hot climatic conditions

Lactation traits and reproductive performance of three trials of crossing Holstein cattle (H) and German Friesians (F) raised in a hot climatic were evaluated. The first 90‐day (M90), 305‐day (M305) and total milk yield (TMY), 305‐day milk yield per day of calving interval (MCI1), total milk yield per day of calving interval (MCI2) along with length of lactation period (LP), age at first calving (AC1) and calving interval (CI) were used. For these traits, a genetic model was applied for each trial separately to obtain estimates of individual (G^I) and maternal (G^M) additive effects, individual (H^I) and maternal (H^M) heterosis and individual recombination effect (R^I). Data of 8045 normal lactations from the three trials were analysed. Among the crossbreds obtained in the three trials, cows of 3/4H 1/4F) ranked first in their lactational performance. Estimates of G^I and G^M were generally large and in favour of H cows (daughters) and dams for most milk‐yield traits, CI and AC1 in the three trials. Estimates of H^I in crossbred cows for milk traits, CI and AC1 were mostly negative and reveal that crossing F with H was associated with a reduction in milk‐yield traits, shorter CI and earlier AC1 along with longer LP in the three trials. Estimates of H^M for milk yields, LP, AC1 and CI in daughters of crossbred dams were mostly negative. Recombination losses in crossbred cows were negative for milk‐yield traits, AC1 and CI in most cases.     

荷斯坦牛泌乳速度指标影响因素分析

【目的】 探究荷斯坦牛泌乳速度相关指标的群体规律及非遗传因素对其的影响。【方法】 收集华东地区某规模化牧场8 757头泌乳牛的906 748条挤奶记录，定义了班次产奶量、前两分钟产奶量、挤奶时间、前两分钟产奶量占比、平均流速和最高流速6个泌乳速度指标，并对其进行了描述性统计，计算了各指标间的Pearson相关系数，采用固定模型分析了测定季节、胎次、泌乳阶段、初产月龄和挤奶班次对泌乳速度相关指标的影响。【结果】 6个泌乳速度指标中，除前两分钟产奶量占比之外，班次产奶量、前两分钟产奶量、挤奶时间、平均流速和最高流速均基本呈对称分布，各个指标的变异较大，变异系数在30%左右；各指标两两之间存在极显著相关关系，相关系数在-0.84~0.89之间，泌乳速度与产奶量呈中等或强相关，与挤奶时间呈弱负相关，与前两分钟产奶量占比呈弱正相关。测定季节、胎次、泌乳阶段、初产月龄和挤奶班次对泌乳速度指标均有极显著影响（P<0.01）；不同季节中，冬季的班次产奶量和挤奶时间最大，夏季的平均流速最快，而秋季的最高流速最快；不同泌乳阶段中，在第Ⅱ泌乳阶段（45~99 d），奶牛的班次产奶量、挤奶时间、平均流速和最高流速均最大；不同班次中，在夜间班次（00：00—06：00），奶牛的班次产奶量、挤奶时间、平均流速和最高流速均为最大。【结论】 奶牛泌乳速度指标存在较大变异，对季节、胎次等环境和生理因素较为敏感，可为奶牛产奶性能的选育提供信息。     

Inbreeding depression on production and reproduction traits of buffaloes from Brazil

The objective of this study was to evaluate the influence of inbreeding depression on traits of buffaloes from Brazil. Specifically, the traits studied were body weight at 205 and 365 days of age, average daily gain from birth to 205 days (ADG_205), average daily gain between 205 and 365 days (ADG205_365) in Mediterranean buffaloes, and milk yield, lactation length, age of first calving and calving intervals in Murrah buffaloes. Inbreeding effects on the traits were determined by fitting four regression models (linear, quadratic, exponential and Michaelis‐Menten) about the errors generated by the animal model. The linear model was only significant (P < 0.05) for growth traits (exception of ADG205_365). The exponential and Michaelis‐Menten models were significant (P < 0.01) for all the studied traits while the quadratic model was not significant (P > 0.05) for any of the traits. Weight at 205 and 365 days of age decreased 0.25 kg and 0.39 kg per 1% of increase in inbreeding, respectively. The inbred animals (F = 0.25) produced less milk than non‐inbred individuals: 50.4 kg of milk. Moreover, calving interval increased 0.164 days per 1% of increase in inbreeding. Interestingly, inbreeding had a positive effect on age at first calving and lactation length, decreasing age of first calving and increasing lactation length.     

Modeling lactation curves and estimation of genetic parameters in Holstein cows using multiple‐trait random regression models

We compared the goodness of fit of three mathematical functions (including: Legendre polynomials, Lidauer‐Mäntysaari function and Wilmink function) for describing the lactation curve of primiparous Iranian Holstein cows by using multiple‐trait random regression models (MT‐RRM). Lactational submodels provided the largest daily additive genetic (AG) and permanent environmental (PE) variance estimates at the end and at the onset of lactation, respectively, as well as low genetic correlations between peripheral test‐day records. For all models, heritability estimates were highest at the end of lactation (245 to 305 days) and ranged from 0.05 to 0.26, 0.03 to 0.12 and 0.04 to 0.24 for milk, fat and protein yields, respectively. Generally, the genetic correlations between traits depend on how far apart they are or whether they are on the same day in any two traits. On average, genetic correlations between milk and fat were the lowest and those between fat and protein were intermediate, while those between milk and protein were the highest. Results from all criteria (Akaike's and Schwarz's Bayesian information criterion, and ?2*logarithm of the likelihood function) suggested that a model with 2 and 5 coefficients of Legendre polynomials for AG and PE effects, respectively, was the most adequate for fitting the data.     

Sahiwal cattle in semi-arid Kenya: genetic aspects of growth and survival traits and their relationship to milk production and fertility

The aim of this study was to estimate genetic and phenotypic parameters for growth and survival traits of Sahiwal cattle in Kenya and determine their relationship to milk production and fertility. Performance records of 5,681 animals were obtained from the National Sahiwal Stud and the traits considered were: birth weight (kilogrammes), weaning weight (kilogrammes), pre-weaning average daily gain (grammes per day), post-weaning average daily gain (grammes per day), yearling weight (kilogrammes), mature weight at 36 months (kilogrammes), pre-weaning survival rate (SR), post-weaning survival rate (PSR), lactation milk yield (kilogrammes), age at first calving (days), and calving interval (days). The data was analysed using univariate and bivariate animal model based on restricted maximum likelihood methods, incorporating all known pedigree relationship among animals. The additive direct effects were more pronounced than maternal genetic effects in early and in post-yearling growth performance. The additive genetic variance and heritabilities were low for SR and PSR. The correlation between direct additive genetic and maternal genetic effect were negative for pre-yearling traits. Genetic and phenotypic correlations among growth traits and between growth and milk yield were positive, whilst those between growth and fertility were weak and negative. Correlations between survival and growth were generally low and positive. The estimates obtained in this study provide the necessary technical parameters for evaluating alternative breeding programmes and selection schemes for sustainable improvement of Sahiwal cattle.     

Genetic parameters for dairy production of Australian Black and White cowsParamètres génetiques de la production laitière des vaches Pie Noires AustraliennesGenetische Parameter für die Milchleistung von australischen Schwarzbunten Kühen

An initial study on the inheritance of first and second lactation dairy production in Australian Black and White cows is presented for the states of New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland and Tasmania. A total of 116,043 first and 14,767 second lactation records for 326 young and 415 old, and 200 young and 31 old sires, respectively, were analyzed using a multivariate Restricted Maximum Likelihood procedure. Analyses were carried out for a mixed model fitting herd-year-seasons and proven sires as fixed, young sires as random effects and age at calving as a linear and quadratic covariable. In addition, the effects of lactation length and month of calving were investigated.The within-HYS phenotypic variation was high with distinct differences between states. As a consequence, heritability estimates were low compared to literature values. Pooled estimates were 0.17, 0.15, 0.38, 0.13 and 0.25 for first lactation milk yield, fat yield, fat content, protein yield and protein content, respectively. Correlations among yields were high, ranging from 0.71 to 0.91 genetically, and from 0.90 to 0.95 phenotypically. Milk yield was negatively related to concentration of constituents, genetic and phenotypic correlations being of the order of ?0.4 and ?0.2, respectively.Heritabilities for second lactation milk yield, fat yield and fat content were 0.18, 0.17 and 0.45, respectively, of similiar magnitude to first lactation values. The respective genetic correlations between first and second lactation were 0.96, 0.98 and 0.98, suggesting that production in both lactations is genetically identical. These high estimates can be attributed to the method of analysis, which accounts for culling based on first lactation performance.     

Sire evaluation for milkability traits in Swiss Braunvieh

Cows were tested for milkability with standardized milking equipment. Percentage of milk from the forequarters (FQ%), average milk flow rate (AMF) in kg min^?1, quantity of hand-stripped milk (HSM) and milk yield at test day (MTD) were recorded. Records of 10 823 daughters in the first lactation of 352 sires were used to investigate environmental influences and to estimate genetic parameters. Significant effects were test season and herd production level for AMF and HSM, test person, milking equipment on the farm, month in lactation, age at calving and region for FQ%, AMF and HSM. The heritabilities were 0.34 for FQ%, 0.41 for AMF and 0.10 for HSM. The genetic correlations of MTD were 0.13 with FQ%, 0.23 with AMF and ?0.20 with HSM. The genetic correlations between FQ% and AMF and all genetic correlations with HSM were negative. Selection indices with information on average deviations of daughters' MTD, FQ%, AMF and HSM from corresponding region — herd level — season means and different economic weights were used to predict selection indices for 239 sires. The predicted breeding values were compared with simple daughter averages. The correlations were high, but large differences in ranks occurred for individual sires. Correcting AMF for milk yield removes some genetic variation in milk flow and can mask genetic differences between sires.     

Genetic evaluation of Australian dairy cattle for somatic cell scores using multi-trait random regression test-day model

Summary A multi-trait (MT) random regression (RR) test day (TD) model has been developed for genetic evaluation of somatic cell scores for Australian dairy cattle, where first, second and third lactations were considered as three different but correlated traits. The model includes herd-test-day, year-season, age at calving, heterosis and lactation curves modelled with Legendre polynomials as fixed effects, and random genetic and permanent environmental effects modelled with Legendre polynomials. Residual variance varied across the lactation trajectory. The genetic parameters were estimated using asreml . The heritability estimates ranged from 0.05 to 0.16. The genetic correlations between lactations and between test days within lactations were consistent with most of the published results. Preconditioned conjugate gradient algorithm with iteration on data was implemented for solving the system of equations. For reliability approximation, the method of Tier and Meyer was used. The genetic evaluation system was validated with Interbull validation method III by comparing proofs from a complete evaluation with those from an evaluation based on a data set excluding the most recent 4 years. The genetic trend estimate was in the allowed range and correlations between the two sets of proofs were very high. Additionally, the RR model was compared to the previous test day model. The correlations of proofs between both models were high (0.97) for bulls with high reliabilities. The correlations of bulls decreased with increasing incompleteness of daughter performance information. The correlations between the breeding values from two consecutive runs were high ranging from 0.97 to 0.99. The MT RR TD model was able to make effective use of available information on young bulls and cows, and could offer an opportunity to breeders to utilize estimated breeding values for first and later lactations.     

The relationship between responsiveness of first-lactation heifers to humans and the behavioral response to milking and milk production measures

The human–animal relationship can influence how an animal responds to situations involving humans and affect animal well-being and production. The objectives of this research were to (1) determine if there is a relationship between the behavioral reactivity of New Zealand dairy heifers toward humans and the behavioral response to cluster placement during milking and milk production measures and (2) determine if this relationship changes as heifers become habituated to the milking process. A total of 150 primiparous heifers were randomly selected from 3 commercial dairy farms. Approximately 1 month before calving, 2 behavioral tests, avoidance distance in response to an approaching human and exit speed from a restraint, were performed on 50 heifers at each farm. For each heifer, behavioral observations were recorded during the morning milking period (during the first and sixth weeks of lactation). Behaviors recorded during cluster placement at milking included flinching, stepping, and/or kicking (FSK). Milk yields, milking durations, and average milk flow rates were recorded for each individual heifer during the first and sixth weeks of lactation. Avoidance distance and exit speed were positively correlated (P < 0.001). The FSK response during cluster placement was negatively (P < 0.01) correlated with exit speed during week 6 of lactation, but there was no relationship (P > 0.05) between avoidance distance and FSK. Avoidance distance was positively (P < 0.005) correlated with milk flow rates during weeks 1 and 6 of lactation and milk yields (P < 0.01) during week 6 of lactation. However, there was no relationship (P > 0.05) between exit speed and milk yields, durations, or flow rates. Furthermore, the FSK response was negatively (P < 0.05) correlated with milk yield during weeks 1 and 6 of lactation. Therefore, the behavioral response of heifers toward humans and the milking process appears to be related to milk production measures.     

Selection of locations of knots for linear splines in random regression test‐day models

Using spline functions (segmented polynomials) in regression models requires the knowledge of the location of the knots. Knots are the points at which independent linear segments are connected. Optimal positions of knots for linear splines of different orders were determined in this study for different scenarios, using existing estimates of covariance functions and an optimization algorithm. The traits considered were test‐day milk, fat and protein yields, and somatic cell score (SCS) in the first three lactations of Canadian Holsteins. Two ranges of days in milk (from 5 to 305 and from 5 to 365) were taken into account. In addition, four different populations of Holstein cows, from Australia, Canada, Italy and New Zealand, were examined with respect to first lactation (305 days) milk only. The estimates of genetic and permanent environmental covariance functions were based on single‐ and multiple‐trait test‐day models, with Legendre polynomials of order 4 as random regressions. A differential evolution algorithm was applied to find the best location of knots for splines of orders 4 to 7 and the criterion for optimization was the goodness‐of‐fit of the spline covariance function. Results indicated that the optimal position of knots for linear splines differed between genetic and permanent environmental effects, as well as between traits and lactations. Different populations also exhibited different patterns of optimal knot locations. With linear splines, different positions of knots should therefore be used for different effects and traits in random regression test‐day models when analysing milk production traits.     

In vitro phagocytic activity of milk neutrophils during lactation cycle in Murrah buffaloes of different parity

Milk samples were collected from 34 lactating Murrah buffaloes on days 0, 5, 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270 and day 300 after calving. Milk somatic cell counts (SCC) were highest in multiparous buffaloes . Milk SCC were significantly lower in buffaloes of third and fourth parity during early lactation and than increased significantly (p < 0.01) by the end of lactation. Milk neutrophils were significantly lower in all the buffaloes during early lactation, but increased significantly (p < 0.01) afterwards. Milk lymphocytes were significantly higher during early lactation, but decreased significantly (p < 0.01) by the end of lactation. Phagocytic activity (PA) was highest in day 1 colostrum and then decreased significantly (p < 0.01) by the fourth milking in buffaloes of second, third and fourth parity . Phagocytic index (PI) was also highest in colostrums of primiparous buffaloes. Irrespective of parity, maximum PA and PI was observed during mid lactation. In terms of in vitro phagocytic activity, early lactation is the most critical period followed by late and mid lactation.