Genetic diversity of the declining arable plant Centaurea cyanus: population fragmentation within an agricultural landscape is not associated with enhanced spatial genetic structure

Agricultural intensification has recently resulted in the decrease in frequency and abundance of arable weed species. This includes the previously widespread Centaurea cyanus, whose populations are now fragmented and infrequent in western Europe. The consequences of habitat modification and fragmentation in terms of genetic diversity of the remaining populations have not yet been addressed. We used ten microsatellite markers to assess the genetic diversity and genetic structure of populations contained in an agricultural landscape in north‐eastern France. The ten microsatellites were all highly polymorphic. Centaurea cyanus appears to be a genetically variable species, with high levels of genetic diversity within each cultivated field. Genetic structure was investigated using a Bayesian method. The partitioning of the genetic variation into three clusters was not associated with sampling locations, and most individuals were admixed. These results suggest that the cornflower populations investigated may have multiple origins in the past and that genetic variation has been reshuffled by human transportation of seeds. Thus, anthropogenic dispersal associated with farming activities is probably a major factor driving the structure of genetic diversity in arable land plants. Despite low levels of genetic differentiation between populations, fine‐scale spatial genetic structure was observed within populations, suggesting limited local dispersal. We conclude that in areas where C. cyanus has become rare, the recent fragmentation of populations may in the future cause a loss of genetic diversity and even extinction.     

The impact of landscape structure and sown grass margin strips on weed assemblages in arable crops and their boundaries

A paired-field study was made in southern England in arable fields, each with or without sown 6-m wide grass margin strips. Seven field pairs were located in each of small, intermediate and open landscapes, which were based on mean field size. Ground cover, plant species diversity and assemblages were assessed in crop centres, crop edges and non-crop field boundaries. The data were used to test for effects of sown grass margins, differences in field location, impacts on rare weed species and for landscape effects on weed assemblages. Significantly higher plant species diversity was found in boundaries protected by buffer strips. Annual weeds associated with field edges, notably Anisantha sterilis , were found at lower cover where perennial grass strips were present. Sown grass strips enhanced boundary plant diversity, particularly by increasing polycarpic species. Margin strips had a small influence on the weed flora of the crop edge, possibly reducing weed cover, but had no influence on floras of field centres. Field size and landscape context did not affect weed assemblages, which show marked field-to-field variability, though crop type was an important influence. Grass margins did not enhance rare arable weed species and may be a threat to them, if margins are sited where such species are known to occur in the seedbank. With this exception, grass strips are a positive influence on boundary flora diversity and reduce margin weeds in arable landscapes.     

内蒙古乌拉盖草原地区土地开发对景观生态格局的影响

景观生态格局的形成和景观生态过程的进行都是多因子长期相互作用的结果 ,本文对内蒙古乌拉盖地区在三个时期的土地开发中景观多样性、优势度、均匀度和分离度进行了研究。分析结果表明 :1 .相对均质的景观在开发的早期 ,景观多样性、优势度、均匀度趋于增高。2 .在人工景观中 ,景观分离度与人为活动强度成正相关 ,而自然景观则相反。 3 .研究土地开发的动态对景观生态格局的影响具有重要现实意义 ,近 3 0多年以来 ,农牧业开发活动已成为景观生态过程的主导因素。     

Genetic diversity within and between sulfonylurea‐resistant and susceptible populations of Schoenoplectus juncoides in Japan

To reveal the effects of herbicide selection on genetic diversity in the outcrossing weed species Schoenoplectus juncoides, six sulfonylurea‐resistant (SU‐R) and eight sulfonylurea‐susceptible (SU‐S) populations were analysed using 40 polymorphic inter‐simple sequence repeat loci. The plants were collected from three widely separated regions: the Tohoku, Kanto and Kyushu districts of Japan. Genetic diversity values (Nei's gene diversity, h) within each SU‐S population ranged from h = 0.125 to h = 0.235. The average genetic diversity within the SU‐S populations was H_S = 0.161, and the total genetic diversity was H_T = 0.271. Although the H_S of the SU‐R populations (0.051) was lower than that of the SU‐S populations, the H_T of the SU‐R populations (0.202) was comparable with that of the SU‐S populations. Most of the genetic variation was found within the region for both the SU‐S and SU‐R populations (88% of the genetic variation respectively). Two of the SU‐R populations showed relatively high genetic diversity (h = 0.117 and 0.161), which were comparable with those of the SU‐S populations. In contrast, the genetic diversity within four SU‐R populations was much lower (from h = 0 to 0.018) than in the SU‐S populations. The results suggest that selection by sulfonylurea herbicides has decreased genetic diversity within some SU‐R populations of S. juncoides. The different level of genetic diversity in the SU‐R populations is most likely due to different levels of inbreeding in the populations.     

Spatial genetic structure and dispersal of the cacao pathogen Moniliophthora perniciosa in the Brazilian Amazon

Moniliophthora perniciosa is the causal agent of witches’ broom in Theobroma cacao (cacao). Three biotypes of M. perniciosa are recognized, differing in host specificity, with two causing symptoms on cacao or Solanaceae species (C‐ and S‐biotypes), and the third found growing endophytically on lianas (L‐biotype). The objectives of this study were to clarify the genetic relationship between the three biotypes, and to identify those regions in the Brazilian Amazon with the greatest genetic diversity for the C‐biotype. Phylogenetic reconstruction based on the rRNA ITS regions showed that the C‐ and S‐biotypes formed a well‐supported clade separated from the L‐biotype. Analysis of 131 isolates genotyped at 11 microsatellite loci found that S‐ and especially L‐biotypes showed a higher genetic diversity. A significant spatial genetic structure was detected for the C‐biotype populations in Amazonia for up to 137 km, suggesting ‘isolation by distance’ mode of dispersal. However, in regions containing extensive cacao plantings, C‐biotype populations were essentially ‘clonal’, as evidenced by high frequency of repeated multilocus genotypes. Among the Amazonian C‐biotype populations, Acre and West Amazon displayed the largest genotypic diversity and might be part of the centre of diversity of the fungus. The pathogen dispersal may have followed the direction of river flow downstream from Acre, Rondônia and West Amazon eastward to the rest of the Amazon valley, where cacao is not endemic. The Bahia population exhibited the lowest genotypic diversity, but high allele richness, suggesting multiple invasions, with origin assigned to Rondônia and West Amazon, possibly through isolates from the Lower Amazon population.     

景观格局分布特征的区域差异分析--以鄂尔多斯高原伊金霍洛旗为例

以内蒙古鄂尔多斯高原伊金霍洛旗为研究区域 ,以TM遥感影像解译的 1998年土地利用图为基础资料 ,将伊金霍洛旗划分为毛乌素沙地亚区、乌审凹地亚区和黄土丘陵亚区。从区域尺度 ,利用多样性、优势度、均匀度、分维数、平均斑块形状指数、平均斑块大小、斑块密度指数和斑块体平均斑块边缘等指数 ,对不同景观亚区的景观格局进行了数量分析。结果表明 ,在景观亚区这一尺度上 ,毛乌素沙地亚区一方面对该旗景观格局起控制作用 ,另一方面该亚区所承受的人类活动强度最大 ,景观的破碎化程度最深。而乌审凹地亚区的景观破碎化程度最小 ,人类活动强度最弱。从景观要素来看 ,无论哪一亚区均以天然草地为景观基质 ;不同类型斑块总的格局特点是 ,受人类影响程度愈深的斑块 ,其破碎化程度愈深 ,斑块的复杂性降低。总体而言 ,天然类型的斑块体 ,其斑块复杂性以乌审凹地亚区最为复杂 ,斑块的破碎化程度则以毛乌素沙地亚区最深 ;而人工斑块类型的变化规律在不同斑块类型之间稍有不同。     

Genetic structure and diversity of Phakopsora pachyrhizi isolates from soyabean

Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers were used to classify 116 isolates of Phakopsora pachyrhizi, the cause of soyabean rust, collected from infected soyabean leaves in four agroecological zones in Nigeria. A high degree of genetic variation was observed within the sampled populations of P. pachyrhizi. Eighty‐four distinct genotypes were identified among three of the four agroecological zones. Nei’s average genetic diversity across geographical regions was 0·22. Hierarchical analysis of molecular variance showed low genetic differentiation among all populations of P. pachyrhizi. The majority (> 90%) of the genetic diversity was distributed within each soyabean field, while approximately 6% of the genetic diversity was distributed among fields within geographic regions. Low population differentiation was indicated by the low F_ST values among populations, suggesting a wide dispersal of identical genotypes on a regional scale. Phylogenetic analysis indicated a strictly clonal structure of the populations and five main groups were observed, with group II accounting for 30% of the entire population. Because of the asexual reproduction of P. pachyrhizi, single‐step mutations in SSR genotypes are likely to account for the genetic differences within each group.     

Perspektiven für blütenreiche Saumbiotope in intensiv genutzten Agrarlandschaften

The project network ?Lebensraum Börde“ consists of five implementation projects funded by the German Federal Environmental Foundation (DBU). From 2002–2006 these projects have developed and implemented options to enhance the habitat function of intensively used arable regions. The project work was focussed on the implementation of flowering field boundaries. An accompanying project has analysed the promoting factors and obstacles of an implementation of flowering field margins outside of the project regions. For this purpose a survey among 865 responding farmers in intensively used agricultural regions was carried out. The results of this survey show, that field margins sown with grass mixtures or flowering plants are the most favoured forms of extensive field strips. Farmers implement these strips preferably on places, where obligations in plant protection have to be fulfilled. Based on gross margin calculations it can be shown, that the total costs of implementing annual flowering strips with crop plant mixtures on high quality soils within the framework of the agri-environmental program of Lower-Saxony (subsidy: 600 €/ha/a) can be fully compensated on land under obligations. Beyond it the farmer makes a profit of 50 €/ha/a. On land not affected by obligations the costs of these flowering strips can not be compensated by the subsidy. This improves the conditions for the implementation of flowering field boundaries also in intensively used arable regions with high soil qualities. Furthermore positive effects concerning the compliance with plant protection obligations can be expected.     

基于GIS的关中地区土地利用/覆盖变化对比研究

关中地区土地利用变化剧烈,内部结构差异明显。选取了该区域的长武县、长安区两个典型区进行土地利用/覆盖变化对比研究。利用1985年、2000年和2005年3期TM遥感影像解译数据,借助GIS的空间分析功能分析了土地利用变化过程,选取了斑块密度、平均分维数、分离度指数、景观多样性指数、景观形状指数等具有明显生态学意义的景观指数对土地利用景观格局进行分析,为土地可持续利用提供景观生态学依据。研究结果表明:在研究时段内,长武县和长安区耕地面积不断减少,长武县的耕地主要流向为林地,而长安区主要转为建设用地。景观格局特征的分析表明,两个区域受人类活动干预较大,斑块数量显著增加,土地利用景观不断破碎,多样性增强,分离度指数显示出各景观类型的空间分布更为分散,而长安区的分散程度相对更高。     

油菜花期潜叶蝇的发生与农业景观的关系

不同农业景观能够影响生态系统生物控害与授粉的服务与功能,但同时也可能影响害虫的种群密度。为了探明江西赣北地区不同农业景观背景下油菜潜叶蝇种群动态,应用广义线性模型分析了农业景观构成因子与油菜潜叶蝇种群数量的关系。结果表明:油菜初花期、盛花期和终花前期,不同样地之间油菜潜叶蝇种群发生趋势相似,在油菜盛花期潜叶蝇为害最重,但不同样地之间的潜叶蝇种群数量差异显著。区域范围农业景观构成因素对油菜花期潜叶蝇发生数量有显著影响。草地面积、森林面积与油菜潜叶蝇的种群数量呈显著正相关关系,耕地面积在中等范围尺度(1 000m半径)与油菜潜叶蝇发生数量负相关。研究结果表明高比例的作物生境反而有相对更低的油菜潜叶蝇种群。本研究内容可以为分析农业景观的生态服务功能提供研究案例,为不同生态农业区域油菜潜叶蝇种群防控提供参考资料。     

河西走廊荒漠化区域景观动态及变化机理分析

应用马尔科夫模型法 ,对河西走廊荒漠化区域景观动态及变化机理进行分析研究 ,结果表明 :河西走廊的景观基质以沙漠和戈壁为主 ,在过去近半个世纪里没有发生根本性变化 ;各景观要素的斑块大小及变化特点是戈壁、流动沙地和半固定沙地等类型的平均斑块面积较大 ,且呈增大态势。而林地、固定沙地、水域和耕地等类型的平均斑块面积较小 ,并且呈减小态势 ;1 949～ 1 995年 ,景观要素转化速率较高的类型主要为耕地、草地、林地、固定沙地和半固定沙地 ,主要的转化形式有流动沙地与固定沙地、半固定沙地间的相互转化 ,盐碱地、耕地、草地、固定沙地、水域等向半固定沙地的转化 ,草地和水域向固定沙地的转化 ,各种不同土地类型向潜在沙化土地转化 ,以及耕地、林地、草地三者之间的相互转化。景观动态表明 ,该区域土地退化极易发生 ,而生态恢复则相对困难 ,区域景观格局总体上呈现向荒漠化方向发展态势。     

Genotypic diversity and migration of clonal lineages of Botrytis cinerea from chickpea fields of Bangladesh inferred by microsatellite markers

An analysis of allelic diversity at nine microsatellite loci provided an insight into the population structure of Botrytis cinerea from four fields (sampled in 2003 and 2004) that represented important regional locations for chickpea production in Bangladesh. Although three populations were limited by sample size after clone‐correction, a total of 51 alleles were amplified among 146 B. cinerea isolates from Bangladesh, which revealed a high amount of within‐population and overall genetic diversity (H_S = 0·48 and H_T = 0·54, respectively). The percentage of maximal genotypic diversity (G) ranged between populations (G = 23–40), with a total of 69 haplotypes detected (G = 25). Bayesian cluster analysis depicted two major clusters distributed among the four Bangladesh populations, indicating population admixture from two origins that have spread throughout these regions. Genotype flow between regions was detected and indicated the spread of clonal lineages, consistent with relatively low differentiation among the four populations (mean G_ST = 0·1, P < 0·05). These results highlighted the potential threat of host resistance breakdown as a result of considerable genetic diversity, genotype flow and the evolutionary potential of B. cinerea.     

Simple sequence repeat analysis of genetic diversity among Acetyl‐CoA carboxylase inhibitor‐resistant and ‐susceptible Echinochloa crus‐galli and E. oryzicola populations in Korea

Echinochloa species are amongst the most problematic weeds in rice fields of Korea. The steady reliance on the Acetyl‐CoA carboxylase (ACCase) and acetolactate synthase inhibiting herbicides for control of these weeds has led to resistance to these herbicides. The objective of this study was to assess the genetic diversity among populations of ACCase inhibitor‐resistant and ‐susceptible Echinochloa crus‐galli and E. oryzicola in Korea, to better understand their population structure and possible origins of resistance. Seven simple sequence repeat markers were applied to assess the genetic diversity between resistant and susceptible E. crus‐galli and E. oryzicola from 12 populations in Korea. Genetic diversity was slightly higher in the resistant group. The Unweighted Pair Group Method using Arithmetic algorithm (UPGMA) dendrogram generated two distinct clades. One clade consisted of Echinochloa spp. from three populations, i.e. Anmyeondo, Gimje 4 and Gongju, which are resistant and differentiated from the susceptible populations, and the other clade contained the rest of the populations. Structure modelling supported two clades of UPGMA clustering. Based on these data, we can infer that some resistant populations are greatly differentiated, whereas other resistant biotypes are still building up resistance in rice fields in Korea. Resistance traits will be fixed and continue to spread over time without proper control measures.     

Pathotypic and genetic diversity in the population of Rhizoctonia solani AG1‐IA causing rice sheath blight in China

Sheath blight, caused by Rhizoctonia solani AG1‐IA, is one of the most serious diseases of rice. In this study, a total of 175 isolates of R. solani AG1‐IA were collected from five rice‐growing regions in China. Pathogenicity tests revealed that all isolates were virulent to five cultivars with different levels of resistance at the rice seedling stage in the greenhouse. There was considerable variation in aggressiveness, and the isolates were classified into three pathotypes based on disease severity, with moderately virulent isolates prevalent in the population. Forty‐three haplotypes were identified based on ITS sequencing, and 39 haplotypes were distinct among isolates. There were high levels of haplotype diversity and nucleotide diversity within the populations of R. solani AG1‐IA. High gene flow (Nm = 1·63–5·22) was detected, consistent with relatively low differentiation between pairs of populations. Five populations were divided into two distinct clusters by the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA), and no spatial population differentiation was discernible. The majority (97·8%) of genetic diversity was distributed among isolates within populations, with only 2·2% of the genetic diversity attributed to differences among populations. The star‐like shape of the haplotype network provided evidence of signatures of population expansion in recent history. No significant relationships were found between the genetic diversity and aggressiveness or geographic origin among populations of R. solani AG1‐IA. These results highlight that the population characteristics of R. solani AG1‐IA should be taken into account in evaluating the germplasm resistance of rice cultivars to sheath blight.     

Rückgang von Ackerunkräutern in Baden-Württemberg – ein Vergleich von vegetationskundlichen Erhebungen in den Jahren 1948/49, 1975–1978 und 2011 im Raum Mehrstetten – Empfehlungen für Landwirtschaft und Naturschutz

In the period from the beginning of grain cultivation in Central Europe until the middle of the last century, the number of arable weed species has steadily increased due to diverse and extensive cropping systems. Since 1950, crop production systems have been intensified, arable land has been used for development (construction), chemical and mechanical weed control has improved and many crops have disappeared. These factors all have contributed to a strong decrease of weed species diversity. Based on detailed vegetation assessments this pattern was confirmed in the Mehrstetten area (Reutlingen County). Sampling data from 2011 were compared to data available for the same sites from 1948/1949 and 1975–1978. In the period covered, weed diversity decreased from by 64 % (97 species). Abundance of weed species was significantly higher in the field margins as compared to the center of the fields. Vegetation data obtained in 2011 no longer allowed for the identification of plant species communities since no species distinctly characterizing certain communities were recorded. There was no shift in the Ellenberg, Zeigerwerte von Pflanzen in Mitteleuropa, 1991, indicator values. None of the 23 endangered species still present in 1948/49 was recorded in 2011. Based on survey results, we assume that decrease in weed species diversity was caused by intensive cropping practices associated with the use of mineral fertilizer and herbicides as well as other effective methods of weed control.     

松嫩平原土地景观动态对旱灾的影响研究--以吉林省农安县为例

景观结构与功能是景观生态学研究的一个主要方面,景观具有等级结构。从土地利用景观和农田景观两个尺度对地处松嫩平原腹地的农安县的土地景观格局动态进行描述;以地形图和遥感影像为信息源,用景观指数对土地利用景观进行分析;采用多样性指数来描述农田景观结构动态。较为系统地分析了土地景观动态变化对农业旱灾的影响,指出土地利用和农作物结构不合理是造成本区农业旱灾频繁的重要原因。     

Genetic diversity of the weed species,Stellera chamaejasme,in China inferred from amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis

Stellera chamaejasme is a perennial weed with a wide geographic range that is found from the Altai of eastern Russia, northern China and Mongolia southwards as far as the western Himalayas of the Qinghai–Tibet and Yungui Plateaus. The genetic diversity and population structure of 17 populations of S. chamaejasme, represented by 349 individuals, were assessed by using amplified fragment length polymorphism markers. The results showed a relatively high level of genetic variation at the species level. The proportion of total diversity among populations was 0.4370, suggesting significant genetic differentiation and a low gene flow among the populations of this species. The Mantel test indicated that genetic differentiation among populations was significantly correlated with geographic distance. Genetic drift through range expansion and a low gene flow among populations might result in a lower diversity in peripheral populations, compared to central populations. A Bayesian analysis revealed two potential gene pools in S. chamaejasme, which was confirmed by neighbor‐joining clustering and principal coordinate analysis. These results demonstrate that it is necessary to develop suitable biocontrol agents for populations with different gene pools.     

Microsatellite variability of sulfonylurea‐resistant and susceptible populations of Schoenoplectus juncoides (Cyperaceae) in Kinki,Japan

Schoenoplectus juncoides is one of the most harmful weeds found in East Asian paddy fields. Recent emergence of biotypes that are resistant to the herbicide sulfonylurea (SU) has made weed control difficult. To examine the effect of the evolution of this herbicide resistance on genetic diversity within local populations, we investigated microsatellite variability within and among paddy field populations of S. juncoides in Kinki, Japan. In vivo assay of acetolactate synthase activity and root elongation assay in the presence of SU revealed that of 21 populations, five were sulfonylurea‐susceptible (SU‐S) and eight were completely sulfonylurea‐resistant (SU‐R). The remaining eight populations were a mixture of SU‐S and SU‐R individuals. The average gene diversity for SU‐R populations (H_S = 0.168) was lower than those for SU‐S (H_S = 0.256) and mixed (H_S = 0.209) populations, but the difference was not significant. This indicates that positive selection for SU‐R phenotype did not cause a genome‐wide reduction in genetic diversity. Genetic differentiation among S. juncoides populations was higher than that observed for most weed species studied previously. Although populations in neighbouring paddy fields showed a high level of differentiation, Bayesian clustering analyses suggested that some level of gene flow occurs among them and that the genetic exchange or colonisation between neighbouring populations could contribute to the geographical expansion of the resistant allele.     

Genetic variation and structure of Solanum elaeagnifolium in Australia analysed by amplified fragment length polymorphism markers

Solanum elaeagnifolium is a weed of national significance in Australia. However, the genetic diversity of S. elaeagnifolium is poorly understood. Four amplified fragment length polymorphism primer combinations were utilised to investigate the genetic variation and structure of 187 S. elaeagnifolium individuals collected from 94 locations in Australia. High genetic diversity was found, with an average Jaccard's genetic similarity at 0.26. Individuals were assigned to two genetic clusters or considered as admixed according to their membership coefficient value (q) calculated by Bayesian model‐based genetic structure analysis. This suggested that Australian S. elaeagnifolium may have originated from two distinct gene pools. These results were further supported by principal co‐ordinates analysis. Large spatial groups of individuals assigning to these two gene pools were found in western Victoria and south‐western New South Wales (NSW) and northern NSW, which correlated well with the early records of S. elaeagnifolium in both regions. The high genetic diversity found here could add difficulties to effective control of S. elaeagnifolium across regions.     

基于RS与GIS的三工河流域生态景观格局分析

利用RS、GIS等手段 ,通过对TM影像的几何校正、配准处理 ,应用计算机分类和人工分类相结合的方法 ,编制生态景观类型图 ,并计算景观多样性、优势度、破碎度和均匀度等指数。对阜康地区三工河流域土地利用类型的生态景观格局初步分析表明 ,该流域是以草地为基质 ,依水分条件优劣发育而成的多种植被类型组合的山地—绿洲—荒漠 (MODS)复合景观结构。其景观破碎度较低 ,多样性较小 ,虽然整体构型较为规整 ,但由于人类活动对其影响的程度趋于增强 ,部分地区生态环境退化表现明显。