Farmers’ Motivations to Plant and Manage On-Farm Trees in Ghana

Deforestation and forest degradation, especially in the agricultural landscapes, are serious threats to biodiversity conservation and sustainability of the timber industry. Planting trees on farms has been identified as having great potential to increase forest resources from agricultural landscapes. This paper examined farmers’ motivations and behaviour to engage in on-farm tree planting and management in Ghana by combining internal and external factors in a socio-psychological model. Data were collected from 156 smallholder farmers from five communities in two forest districts using a semi-structured questionnaire. Additional farm inventory data were collected from 33 farmers under two on-farm tree planting schemes. On-farm tree planting was perceived as providing income, access to personal timber for furniture, and access to loan facilities. Incentives such as provision of grants, farming inputs, capacity training, and access to markets for agricultural produce are factors that motivate on-farm tree planting in Ghana. The average standing volume of on-farm trees in the study area is 51.9 m³/ha which is almost twice the national average for the off-reserve areas in the semi-deciduous forests to which much of the study sites belong. Many farmers considered high financial costs and limited knowledge of appropriate techniques in managing planted on-farm trees as barriers to the development of tree stock on farms.     

Constraints for future cocoa production in Ghana

To address the growing global demand for cocoa, sustainable intensification of its production in West Africa is considered crucial. This paper analyzes the determinants of cocoa productivity and profitability by smallholder farmers in Ghana to provide insights into challenges for future cocoa farming, which will guide the formulation and prioritization of tailored policies to address them. A four-stage sampling technique was used to select a total of 731 cocoa farmers from various districts in all six cocoa growing regions in Ghana. Selected farmers were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results show that cocoa productivity and profitability was very low with an average of 234 kg ha^?1 and Gh¢ 568 (ca. US$ 150) per ha, respectively. Farm management practices, namely control of capsid and black pod disease, fertilizer application and pruning, significantly (p < 0.05) influenced cocoa productivity. Capsid control and fertilizer application showed the highest impact on productivity. Farm size, however, had a negative impact, which implies that increase in farm size results in decreased smallholder cocoa productivity. Farmers should be encouraged to sustainably intensify farm management through controlling black pod disease and capsids, regular pruning and efficient application of fertilizer rather than focusing on excessive land expansion, which eventually hampers productivity and biodiversity.     

Tree Planting by Smallholder Farmers in the Upper Catchment of Lake Tana Watershed,Northwest Ethiopia

Tree growing by smallholder farmers is an emerging livelihood strategy in Lake Tana catchment. The objectives of this study were to (1) identify the most important tree species grown, (2) investigate the drivers of the existing pattern, and (3) identify determinants of the number and diversity of tree species and their spatial patterns. Survey data were collected from 200 households. Multiple linear regression was employed to identify the determinants of tree growing behaviour of households and spatial variables affecting the abundance of tree species. Eucalyptus globulus, Acacia decurrens and E. camaldulensis dominate woodlots. Only a fraction of the forest production is used by the households, the rest being sold as poles or charcoal. Location in relation to market centres, number of livestock owned, landholding size and age of household head were found to positively affected the number of tree species and trees grown. Gender affected the species and spatial pattern of trees. Woodlots, farm boundaries and homesteads were found to be important tree growing niches. These results substantiate the proposition that farmers assign their parcels of land to uses that increase the rent value of the land, and this value is affected by access to roads. Woodlots are on the increase at the cost of productive agricultural land. Provision of a tree planting extension service may increase participation of farmers in tree planting, and a management-oriented tree planting extension service may give desirable results.     

On-farm agroforestry research in extension programmes: methods used by BAIF in India

The BAIF Development Research Foundation initiated an agroforestry extension project in Pune District, India in 1984, following earlier on-station research on leuceana-based alley-cropping systems for fodder. In extension meetings, farmers expressed a strong preference for planting a wide range of multipurpose trees on farm bunds and borders rather than single-species alley-cropping. Researcher-managed trials of proposed multipurpose species grown with crops were initiated, but were of limited value. An alternative approach to research was begun in 1988. This approach included a survey of agroforestry practices established by farmers through extension, and collection of data on crop yields by distance from the tree line from a sample of these plots. Research methods are described and modifications suggested for improving the quality of this type of extension-based research.     

Socio-economic determinants of smallholder plantation sizes in Ghana and options to encourage reforestation

Reforestation, particularly in the tropics, is of crucial importance for the environment as well as society. However, small planting areas and low participation of smallholder farmers in tree planting programmes often obstruct realisation of set planting area targets. In this regard, we interviewed smallholder farmers undertaking indigenous species reforestation in Oda Kotoamso community within the Wassa Amenfi West District in Western Region of Ghana with a pre-tested questionnaire to identify (1) key socio-economic factors that predict the size of plantations they establish, (2) options that could encourage tree planting among smallholder farmers, and (3) tree species planted by the smallholder farmers and their conservation status according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Key socio-economic factors were predicted with multiple regression models and ANOVA. Options were ranked on a five-point Likert scale and their differences were tested with the Mann–Whitney U test. Age and income of smallholders are the significant predictors of plantation sizes but farmers’ household size and gender were not significant. Age and income accounted for 77.1% and 22.9%, respectively, of the total variation described by our model (R?² = 38.4%). In order of importance, incentives (mean = 4.35, SD = 0.48), public nurseries (mean = 4.2, SD = 0.82) and agroforestry (mean = 4.06, SD = 0.56) were the options that could encourage reforestation, though incentives and public nurseries were not significantly different (p > 0.05). Almost half (9 of 19) of the tree species planted are categorised as Vulnerable species, which highlights the contribution of smallholder farmers to recovery of threatened tree species. Our findings suggest that sustainable provision of planting materials in incentivised and youth-based tree planting programmes could increase planting hectarage and conserve threatened tree species.     

Innovation in input supply systems in smallholder agroforestry: seed sources,supply chains and support systems

Institutional innovation in providing inputs and services is a central element for smallholder development. Agroforestry is an important income generating activity for millions of smallholders in the tropics, yet access to quality planting material—germplasm—of valuable tree species remains a major hurdle for improving farm productivity. We discuss requirements and possibilities for institutional innovation in developing more efficient delivery systems for tree germplasm as one aspect of improved input supply. We describe a simple model for delivery to farmers that identifies the major types of germplasm sources and discuss how this model can be used to identify relevant interventions to address bottlenecks in current systems. Our analysis leads to eight input supply configurations for smallholder agroforestry, typified by three major models. Lessons from the evolution of smallholder crop seed delivery systems can be applied to tree germplasm supply and indicate that a commercial, decentralised model holds most promise for sustainability. However, current emphasis in agroforestry on government and NGO models of delivery hinder the development of this approach. The application of prevailing classification approaches may also create a barrier to the development of appropriate supply systems that effectively service smallholders. An important implication of our analysis is that current actors in agroforestry input supply systems must redefine their roles in order for effective delivery to take place. We chose a case study from Kenya to illustrate our points.     

Improving adoptability of farm forestry in the Philippine uplands: a linear programming model

In the Philippines, smallholder farmers have become major timber producers. But the systems of timber production practiced have several limitations. In intercropping systems, the practice of severe branch and/or root pruning reduces tree-crop competition and increases annual crop yields, but is detrimental to tree growth and incompatible with commercial timber production. In even-aged woodlots, lack of regular income and poor tree growth, resulting from farmers’ reluctance to thin their plantations, are major constraints to adoption and profitable tree farming. In the municipality of Claveria, Misamis Oriental, the recent practice of planting trees on widely spaced (6–8 m) contour grass strips established for soil conservation suggests ways to improve the adoptability (i.e., profitability, feasibility and acceptability) of timber-based agroforestry systems. Assuming that financial benefits are the main objective of timber tree farmers, we develop a simple linear programming (LP) model for the optimal allocation of land to monocropping and tree intercropping that maximizes the net present value of an infinite number of rotations and satisfies farmers’ resource constraints and regular income requirements. The application of the LP model to an average farmer in Claveria showed that cumulative additions of widely spaced tree hedgerows provides higher returns to land, and reduce the risk of agroforestry adoption by spreading over the years labour and capital investment costs and the economic benefits accruing to farmers from trees. Therefore, incremental planting of widely spaced tree hedgerows can make farm forestry more adoptable and thus benefit a larger number of resource-constrained farmers in their evolution towards more diverse and productive agroforestry systems.     

Psychological Factors Influencing Farmers’ Intention to Adopt Agroforestry: A Structural Equation Modeling Approach

ABSTRACT

The biophysical characteristics of the farm and farmers’ socioeconomic factors have been used to explain adoption of technologies in Africa. However, agricultural technology adoption requires that we also understand the psychological factors that can encourage or discourage farmer adoption of technologies. The aim of this article is to assess the psychological drivers of farmers’ intentions to adopt agroforestry technologies on their farms. We obtained data from 400 smallholder farmers in the Mt. Elgon region of Uganda. The Theory of Planned Behavior was used as the main framework. Quantitative data were analyzed using structural equation modeling to assess the impact of a set of psychological factors on farmers’ intention to integrate trees in coffee. The intention of farmers to integrate trees in coffee plantations was mainly driven by their evaluation of the benefits of shaded coffee (attitude) followed by beliefs about their own capability (perceived behavioral control). However, social pressure (subjective norm) was insignificant, implying that smallholder farmers tend to deny the influence of other people’s behavior on their actions. Therefore, farmers’ positive evaluation of shading coffee and the perceived capability to overcome tree planting barriers reinforced their intention to integrate trees in coffee. This renders attitude and perceived behavioral control as reliable predictors of farmer tree planting behavior, especially in the context of developing countries.     

Farm Forestry Prospects Among Some Local Communities in Rachuonyo District,Kenya

Deforestation and degradation of productive lands are serious threats to the sustainability of forestry/agricultural practices in Kenya. In the last two decades farm forestry (FF) has been promoted through pilot projects among local communities as an example of sustainable land use. However adoption of FF is limited outside the project locations because FF improvement measures focused mainly on biological (e.g. succession, biodiversity and traditional industrial timber production) and technical concerns (e.g. material input delivery such as providing free tree seedlings for field planting) rather than local values, and interests and the constraints facing farmers. This study examined the local farm priorities and constraints and the prospects for the wider implementation of farm-level tree planting in four communities in Rachuonyo District. Using interviews with 597 randomly selected household heads, the study assessed farmer’s production assets and activities, land tenure, priority tree species and the constraints to growing trees on farms. Results show that farm labour is represented by a young population, 56.3% under the age of forty. They are mainly engaged in small-scale mixed cropping integrated with multipurpose trees and some livestock. Tree products contribute about 32% to household cash income, more than any other source (agricultural products, labour sales, etc). Females were more often household heads and had considerable influence over productive activities, making them an important target group in FF development. Farmers preferred exotic tree species due to their ability to provide short-term cash income, fuel and shade. Farmers’ concerns included population pressure on limited farmlands and the problem of credit for agricultural inputs. Given the feeling of secured tenure arrangement and influence of tree products on the household economy, farmers are likely to invest more in efficient land uses such as FF if consideration is given to local priorities.     

Climate change and tree genetic resource management: maintaining and enhancing the productivity and value of smallholder tropical agroforestry landscapes. A review

Anthropogenic climate change has significant consequences for the sustainability and productivity of agroforestry ecosystems upon which millions of smallholders in the tropics depend and that provide valuable global services. We here consider the current state of knowledge of the impacts of climate change on tree genetic resources and implications for action in a smallholder setting. Required measures to respond to change include: (1) the facilitated translocation of environmentally-matched germplasm across appropriate geographic scales, (2) the elevation of effective population sizes of tree stands through the promotion of pollinators and other farm management interventions; and (3) the use of a wider range of ??plastic?? species and populations for planting. Key bottlenecks to response that are discussed here include limitations in the international exchange of tree seed and seedlings, and the absence of well-functioning delivery systems to provide smallholders with better-adapted planting material. Greater research on population-level environmental responses in indigenous tree species is important, and more studies of animal pollinators in farm landscapes are required. The development of well-functioning markets for new products that farmers can grow in order to mitigate and adapt to anthropogenic climate change must also consider genetic resource issues, as we describe.     

Prioritizing Underutilized Tree Species for Domestication in Smallholder Systems of West Java

This paper provides an overview of a tree species prioritization study of underutilized tree species in a participatory tree domestication program for smallholders in Indonesia. The study was conducted in three villages of Nanggung sub-district, Bogor district via farmer surveys, focus group discussion, SWOT analysis and evaluation of markets and germplasm sources. Five priority species were identified: Manglietia glauca, Parkia speciosa, Durio zibethinus, Gmelina arborea and Sandoricum koetjape. These species are promising components of agroforestry systems to enhance smallholder livelihoods and can grow under the low management conditions common in smallholder systems. They represent indigenous and exotic tree types that produce timber, fruit or spices within the domestication continuum. Furthering the domestication and utilization of these species requires the identification and dissemination of available germplasm sources, the dissemination of high-quality germplasm and the development of farmer-friendly propagation and tree management practices. Also, as with most smallholder systems, the marketing practices for the products of these five species require improvement, starting with the production of reliable quantities of high quality tree products.     

Woody biomass on farms and in the landscapes of Rwanda

Scattered trees and woodlots are a prominent feature of agricultural landscapes of Rwanda. However, little is known about their characteristics and their contribution to farmers’ wood needs. Here, we present the results of a survey of (a) the abundance, composition, and size of trees and woodlots in the low, medium and high altitude regions of Rwanda, (b) total woody biomass and biomass for fuelwood at farm and landscape levels, and (c) opportunities for their sustainable use. Scattered trees occurred in all landscapes at minimum densities ranging from 20 to 167 trees ha^?1. Of the 56 tree genera recorded, a handful of tree species dominated, with the ten most common species accounting for over 70 % of all trees recorded. Most of them provided fuelwood, fruit and timber to farm owners. Woodlots occurred on about 40 % of the survey farms and consisted for 90 % of eucalyptus coppice. Woody biomass dry weight of scattered trees on agricultural landscape was 0.7 t ha^?1 in low altitude region (LAR), 3 t ha^?1 in medium altitude region (MAR), and 1 t ha^?1 in high altitude region (HAR). Dry weight woody biomass in woodlots (<0.5 ha) was the highest in MAR (221 t ha^?1), followed by that in HAR (205 t ha^?1) and least in LAR (96 t ha^?1). About 80 % of total woody biomass in trees and woodlots on farmland was useable biomass for fuelwood, indicating that the production of fuelwood on agricultural land was important. Woody biomass on agricultural land was higher than that in forest plantations, and was potentially sufficient to reduce the gap between fuelwood supply and demand when the entire agricultural area was taken into account. In order to achieve this on agricultural land, while contributing to food security and environmental conservation as well, smallholder farmers must be provided with incentives to grow woodlots and to adopt agroforestry systems, thereby considering the trade-offs with agricultural production. Strategies to encourage smallholder farmers to increase the use of agroforestry have to account for the farmers’ ecological and socioeconomic conditions.     

Agroforestry Tree Seed Production and Supply Systems in Malawi

A sustainable agroforestry tree germplasm supply system is vital to resource-constrained smallholder farmers who depend on agroforestry to improve the productivity of their farm enterprises. Successful adoption of agroforestry hinges on the development of a sustainable agroforestry tree germplasm supply system. This paper reviews the agroforestry tree seed supply system in Malawi, with a view to determining its sustainability and quality. Currently, more than 90% of the documented agroforestry tree seed distributed to farmers is produced by smallholder farmers collected mainly from scattered farmland trees, the remainder being produced from seed orchards and seed stands owned or controlled by research organizations. Three organizations—namely the Land Resources Centre (LRC), National Tree Seed Centre (NTSC) of the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi (FRIM) and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)—were identified as major procurers of agroforestry tree seed produced by smallholder farmers. Agroforestry germplasm is distributed to farmers by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and government agricultural and forestry extension departments. The procurement and distribution of germplasm to farmers is in general effective. The major challenge to sustainability of agroforestry tree germplasm distribution in Malawi is dependence on donor funding. The agroforestry tree seed system is, to some extent, sustainable with regards to production, although the genetic quality of the germplasm is low. Germplasm storage facilities at national level are available and possibly adequate, but knowledge and information on effective low-cost tree germplasm storage systems at household level are limited. Sustainability could be enhanced by strengthening of grass-root organizations involved in tree seed production to institutionalize the distribution through farmer–farmer exchange. There is also a need to support the development, promotion and adoption of low-cost tree germplasm storage facilities by smallholder farmers.     

Comparing genetic diversity in agroforestry systems with natural forest: a case study of the important timber tree Vitex fischeri in central Kenya

It is possible that current tree domestication practices undertaken by farmers reduce the genetic base of tree resources on farms, raising concerns regarding the productivity, sustainability and conservation value of agroforestry ecosystems. Here, we assessed possible changes in genetic variation during domestication in the important and heavily utilised timber species, Vitex fischeri Gürke (syn. Vitex keniensis), by comparing geographically proximate forest and farm material in central Kenya. Employing RAPD analysis, a total of 104 polymorphic markers revealed by five arbitrary primers were scored in a total of 65 individuals, 32 from forest and 33 from farmland. Despite concerns of possible genetic erosion, forest and farm stands did not differ significantly in levels of genetic variation, with H values of 0.278 and 0.269, respectively. However, Mantel tests did reveal greater geographically related associative genetic structure among individuals in farm rather than forest material, with r _M values of 0.217 and 0.114, respectively. A more detailed analysis of structure suggested this could be due to local variation in origin of some on-farm trees. Implications of data for the genetic management of V. fischeri stands during farmer-led tree domestication activities are discussed. At present, there appears little reason to reject on-farm V. fischeri as a source of germplasm for future on-farm planting or for conservation purposes, although this situation may change and will require monitoring.     

Land tenure and farm management efficiency: The case of smallholder rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra

This study assesses the impact of land tenure institutions on the efficiency of farm management based on a case study of rubber production in customary land areas of Sumatra, Indonesia. Using the modes of land acquisition as measures of land tenure institutions, we estimated tree planting, revenue, income, and short-run profit functions, and internal rates of return to tree planting on smallholder rubber fields. We find generally insignificant differences in the incidence of tree planting and management efficiency (defined as residual profits) of rubber production between newly emerging private ownership and customary ownership. This is consistent with our hypothesis that tree planting confers stronger individual rights, if land rights are initially weak (as in the case of family land under customary land tenure systems). On the other hand, short-term profits are higher on land that is rented through share tenancy. This result indicates that rubber trees are over-exploited under renting arrangements due partly to the short-run nature of the land tenancy contracts and partly to the difficulty landowners face in supervising tapping activities of tenants in spatially dispersed rubber fields. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Cacao-fruit tree intercropping effects on cocoa yield, plant vigour and light interception in Côte d’Ivoire

A major challenge for cocoa producers in Côte d’Ivoire is to seek alternative shade trees or crop associations to adapt their planting devices and techniques to the shortage of forests. The recent tendency developed by farmers is to plant simplified orchards combining cacao and fruit trees. An on-farm trial was set up in a 5-year-old cocoa farm to compare a cacao monocrop planted at densities of 1,115 trees ha^?1 with cacao intercropped with orange or avocado trees, both at 44 trees ha^?1. Observations were done on incident light received by the cacao, vigour, growth and cocoa yields. On average, the cacaos received 100 % light in the monocrop, 89.6 % under orange trees and 80.6 % of incident light under avocado trees. They yielded 64.0 pods tree^?1 year^?1 in the monocrop (equivalent to 2.54 kg dry cocoa beans tree^?1), 30.3 pods tree^?1 when combined with orange trees and 28.3 pods tree^?1 with avocado trees. The two combinations allowed cocoa yields equivalent to those observed in the region (0.58 kg dry cocoa beans tree^?1). Vigour and yield were very highly correlated with the incident light received. Both the yield and the incident light are a logistic function of the planting distance from the shade tree. The inflexion point of the logistic functions corresponds to the minimum planting distance between the cacao and the intercropped fruit trees. On this basis, we suggest that the cacaos should not be planted closer than 6.50 ± 0.2 m to the orange or avocado trees.     

Tree Adoption and Nursery and Propagation Practices in Smallholder Upland Farms in Inopacan and Isabel, Leyte, the Philippines

This paper examines seedling nursery and propagation practices in smallholder farms in two upland areas in Leyte in the Philippines. The case study areas are relatively remote, little forestry extension has been carried out, and traditional practices can be observed. These practices were examined through a survey of smallholders and observation of forestry activities. It was found that in spite of various constraints and notably the lack of planting materials, farmers are interested in forestry and are adopting some naturally growing trees and producing their own seedlings. To make way to their crops, farmers have removed some naturally growing trees of some particular species on their farms. For the purpose of introducing trees to farms, wildlings are widely used as planting material. Some farmers also collect seeds and treat them in preparation for planting, using methods which differ from those recommended elsewhere by extension agencies, but which are nevertheless highly effective.     

A preliminary investigation into agroforestry practices in the savanna belt of western Nigeria

This paper evaluates agroforestry practices in a part of the Guinea savanna belt of south-western Nigeria. The attitude of local farmers to tree planting in crop fields was evaluated. Tree adoption on the farm was assessed by identifying the tree species on the field and their frequencies. The results show that there is little indication that the trees are deliberately utilized to enhance farm operations in the area. It is concluded that greater attention needs to be given to the promotion of agroforestry techniques in the savanna belt. This is especially important as the increasing demand for food would put pressure on the soil resources.     

Introduction of Raikhanim (Ficus semicordata) in a Maize and Finger-Millet Cropping System: An Agroforestry Intervention in Mid-Hill Environment of Nepal

Fodder trees are integral part of farming system in the hills of Nepal, but designed agroforestry interventions targeted to particular trees and crops are not widely available. This paper examines the joint productivity of an agroforestry practice in which Raikhanim (Ficus semicordata) is planted in a maize (Zea mays) and finger-millet (Eleusine coracana) cropping system at Keware Bhanjyang of the western mid-hills of Nepal. Raikhanim seedlings were planted in a row on terrace risers 2, 4 and 6 m apart in ordinary farming conditions, in a randomized block design with three replications. Maize and finger-millet were grown on the terraces as intercrops with a control plot without trees on risers in each replicate. Growth parameters of Raikhanim—height, diameter at 30 cm above ground (D₃₀) and survival rate—were recorded annually in December until trees were lopped for fodder biomass, and crop yields were measured to determine tree-crop interaction effects. Tree height and D₃₀ differed significantly between spacings until trees reached the lopping stage 3½ years after planting, with the highest growth in 4 m spacing. Tree lopping checked the height growth but the diameter growth continued to increase and differed among spacings after lopping. Fodder biomass increased with tree age and was highest under 4 m spacing (7.294 t/ha) followed by 6 m (5.256 t/ha) and 2 m (3.84 t/ha). Finger-millet yield in the experimental plots decreased with tree age due to shading effects, while maize yield was not substantially affected. Among spacings, control plots produced the highest finger-millet yield (1,624 kg/ha) while the 6 m spacing produced the highest maize yield (2,463 kg/ha). It is concluded that planting Raikhanim at 6 m intervals will produce additional fodder without significant effect on maize yield and only a moderate effect on finger-millet yield. The agroforestry practice of planting fodder trees on under-utilised terrace risers is a viable option for mid-hill farmers for simultaneous production of fodder and cereal crops while sustaining the hill farming system.     

Farmers’ perceptions about exotic multipurpose fodder trees and constraints to their adoption

Many organizations in Ethiopia have for many years promoted exotic multipurpose fodder trees (EMPFT) for livestock feed and soil improvement. Despite the apparent benefits, the number of farmers planting these trees was low. The objectives were to elucidate farmers’ perceptions about their use value, management practices and constraints to adoption in three districts representing annual (one wheat-based and one teff-based) and perennial (coffee-based) crop-livestock systems in the Ethiopian highlands. Data were collected from 235 farm households. Most farmers (95.3%) had awareness of EMPFTs and the principal information sources were development agents (75.3%). Over half of the farmers were motivated to plant EMPFTs for feed value. Motivation for other purposes depended on cropping system, vegetation cover and availability of alternative local fodder trees in the area. Farmers had positive perceptions about EMPFTs for their feed value and contribution to soil conservation. Current adopters had a mean number of 587 (SE ± 84) EMPFTs per farm. Major constraints to adoption of EMPFTs were agronomic problems, low multipurpose value, and land shortage. Majority of farmers (89.8%) were interested to either continue or begin fodder tree development. Of the interested respondents, 44.5% preferred local fodder trees whereas 55.5% preferred EMPFTs. We conclude that farmers are aware of use values of EMPFTs while perceived constraints suggest that introduction of EMPFTs need consideration of farmers multiple criteria, but also awareness of feeding fodder trees and resource availability. Moreover, current development approaches have to recognize the importance of involving the end-users at all stages through participatory approaches to enhance adoption.