Preparation and equipment useful for surgery in small exotic pets.

Because many exotic pets are so small, the instrumentation and equipment used for surgery are different from in larger animals. Magnification greatly improves the surgeon's ability to accomplish surgeries in small patients and helps to provide hemostasis because small amounts of blood are significant in these tiny patients. Microsurgical instrumentation is important to allow for proper tissue handling and suture placement. Various other considerations, instrumentation, and equipment are useful when performing surgery on small exotic pets.     

Current therapies in exotic animal oncology.

The majority of information on oncology therapies has been reported in humans, canine, and feline patients, and laboratory animals with experimentally induced tumors. A variety of treatments,including radiation therapy, chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and others have been used with exotic animals. There are many species of exotic pets, and anatomic differences, as well as husbandry and nutritional requirements, must be taken into account to provide optimal care. By providing a broad overview of therapies and considerations for treatment, this article is intended to provide the practitioner with an overview of approach and options when addressing oncology cases in exotic animals.     

Emergency Presentations of the Exotic Small Mammalian Herbivore Trauma Patient

Trauma is a common complaint by owners of small exotic mammalian herbivores (e.g., rabbits, rodents) presented to veterinary hospitals. The term “trauma” is a broad disease category applied to patients with physical debilitation associated with injury often classified as “blunt,” “penetrating,” or “burn” in origin. Because many small exotic mammalian herbivores are prey animals, clinical signs of trauma may be masked until the effects of the injury outweigh the innate nature to survive. Small exotic mammalian herbivores are disproportionately sensitive to stress; thus, pain management and supportive care are extremely important during the initial stages of trauma management. Small exotic mammals differ slightly from other companion animals (e.g., dogs, cats) in regard to common trauma presentations. However, with a few therapeutic modifications (e.g., antibiotic selection, avoidance of corticosteroids, preventing self-trauma), treatment of small exotic mammalian herbivore trauma cases follows the same conventional guidelines used for other companion animals.     

金佛山自然保护区外来入侵植物种及其分布情况

生物入侵对全球的生物多样性造成了严重威胁。自然保护区是保护生物多样性的重要基地,因此,自然保护区的生物入侵现状如何备受关注。本研究以金佛山国家一级自然保护区为研究区域,采用样方法和野外踏勘法对金佛山自然保护区的外来植物进行了调查,初步调查结果如下:1)在金佛山共发现56种外来植物种,主要是草本类植物,且多呈零星分布,绝大部分外来植物与本地植物一样仅仅作为一种可利用资源出现,而且没有出现明显的相互竞争,但五节芒具有突出的入侵分布特征;2)56种外来植物中有31种是有意引进的,占入侵种总数的55%;15种是自然入侵的,占27%;有9种是入侵来源不明的,占16%;1种是伴随其他物种无意引进的,占2%。而目前危害面积最大的五节芒就是入侵通道不明的外来植物种;3)调查的样方中外来植物的出现频度与干扰程度相关,干扰越严重的,出现外来植物种的几率越大,踏勘也呈现了同样的规律。     

Exotic placental carnivore dentistry.

Dentistry in exotic carnivores is becoming more common as their level of care is enhanced. These cases present many interesting challenges, but adaptation of currently accepted dental procedures, use of newly developed instrumentation, and educated improvisation can handle almost any situation that a practitioner might encounter. It must be kept in mind, however, that there are virtually no medications, medicaments, or drugs that are approved for treatment of the various exotic carnivores. Therefore, the treatments that are discussed in this article should all be considered as "off label" use, and be reviewed closely before being applied to patients.     

Skin diseases of rodents and small exotic mammals.

Small exotic mammals and rodents are becoming popular pets in the United States. Like most other exotics, the popularity of these animals has vastly preceded the accumulation of practical husbandry and veterinary information available about them. Several dermatologic conditions have been described in most rodents and small exotic mammals; however, the practitioner can assume that more exist that have not yet been diagnosed or documented. It is not unreasonable to assume that rodents and small exotic mammals could be affected by many of the same dermatologic conditions well described in other animals. Veterinarians are encouraged always to apply the same diagnostic protocols used to work up skin problems in dogs and cats when presented with an exotic pet with a dermatologic disease.     

Arterial Catheterization,Interpretation, and Treatment of Arterial Blood Pressures and Blood Gases in Birds

Blood pressure monitoring of patients has become increasingly common in companion animal veterinary hospitals, especially during anesthesia, surgical procedures, critical care, and general health assessments. Determining an animal’s blood pressure has become a standard part of the routine diagnostic evaluation for monitoring hypertension in geriatric patients or patients affected with renal insufficiency, cardiac disease, vision loss, or endocrine disorders. To increase the standard of care in exotic and zoological medicine, new diagnostic techniques must be identified and implemented. Blood pressure measurements in avian species are more challenging because only direct blood pressure techniques have been reported to be accurate. Arterial catheterization and interpretation can be daunting without the knowledge of avian physiology and anatomy; however, techniques for placing arterial catheters are not difficult once clinicians have gained sufficient experience. This article describes the techniques, anatomy, and appropriate interpretation of blood pressure results obtained through arterial catheterization in birds.     

Clinical Technique: Endoscopic Oophorectomy in the Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus): The Future of Preventative Sterilizations

Laparoscopic surgery is entrenched within human medicine and offers many advantages over traditional laparotomy procedures. Such techniques have filtered down into veterinary medicine, with some practitioners now routinely performing endoscopic oophorectomy in dogs. However, until the recent development of miniature laparoscopy instruments for human pediatrics, such procedures were not possible in small exotic mammals. By combining the commonly used 2.7-mm endoscopic system with 3-mm instruments, laparoscopic surgery has now become a reality in exotic mammal practice. This article summarizes the required equipment and the surgical approach to performing endoscopic oophorectomy in pet rabbits, and serves as a useful model for endosurgery in small exotic mammals.     

Principles of neurological imaging of exotic animal species.

Because the central nervous system (CNS) is encased almost entirely in bone, the means by which the clinician can evaluate it are limited. Additionally, the small size of many exotic companion animals further complicates diagnostic evaluation of the brain and spinal cord. Knowledge of the advantages and limitations of different imaging modalities, along with the neuroanatomical localization and assessment of likely causes of disease, will permit the clinician to choose the most appropriate imaging method for the patient. This article discusses the basic imaging principles of radiology, myelography, CT, and MRI of the nervous system of companion exotic animals to aid exotic animal clinicians in selecting imaging modalities and interpreting the results.     

Ten things I wish I'd learned at university.

To many veterinarians, it may seem that university did not equip or prepare them adequately to deal with exotic animals. In fact, the opposite is true--graduate veterinarians have been trained as problem-solvers and doers. By applying the knowledge and skills learned at University, most veterinarians are more than capable of providing quality medical services to exotic pet owners. Veterinarians wishing to take this further need to accept that they have some learning to do and experience to gain. Those with a true love and affinity for exotic animals will be able to develop their skills and achieve proficiency and competency in one of the most exciting and fast-growing fields of veterinary medicine today.     

Biomarkers of Inflammation in Exotic Pets

The acute phase response (APR) is a key part of the innate immune system and acute phase proteins (APPs) represent the core of the early response to stimuli such as trauma, infection, stress, neoplasia, and autoimmune disease. These biomarkers have a different timeline and magnitude of expression vs traditional means of examining inflammation (e.g., total white blood count and albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio). Extensive studies conducted in companion and large animals have demonstrated many clinical applications for inflammatory biomarkers including diagnosis, prognosis, detection of subclinical disease and chronic inflammation, and monitoring stress. This article provides information regarding the APR and the uses of APP quantitation, as well as the growing body of information on APPSs in exotic animals.     

Common procedures in other avian species.

Although psittacine species represent the majority of avian patients seen in most exotic animal practices, nonpsittacine species such as passerines and galliformes may be presented as pets, as members of zoo collections, or as injured or ill wildlife. Many features of handling, restraint, sample collection, medicine, and surgery are similar in psittacine and nonpsittacine species. In many cases, the equipment required will be similar as well, with a few modifications.     

An Introduction and Practical Guide to Use of the Soil-Vegetation Inventory Method (SVIM) Data

Long-term vegetation dynamics across public rangelands in the western United States are not well understood because of the lack of large-scale, readily available historic datasets. The Bureau of Land Management’s Soil-Vegetation Inventory Method (SVIM) program was implemented between 1977 and 1983 across 14 western states, but the data have not been easily accessible. We introduce the SVIM vegetation cover dataset in a georeferenced, digital format; summarize how the data were collected; and discuss potential limitations and biases. We demonstrate how SVIM data can be compared with contemporary monitoring datasets to quantify changes in vegetation associated with wildfire and the abundance of exotic invasive species. Specifically, we compare SVIM vegetation cover data with cover data collected by BLM’s Assessment, Inventory, and Monitoring (AIM) program (2011–2016) in a focal area in the northern Great Basin. We address issues associated with analyzing and interpreting data from these distinct programs, including differences in survey methods and potential biases introduced by spatial and temporal variation in sampling. We compared SVIM and AIM survey methods at 44 plots and found that percent cover estimates had high correspondence for all measured functional groups. Comparisons between historic SVIM data and recent AIM data documented significant declines in the occupancy and cover of native shrubs and native perennial forbs, and a significant increase in exotic annual forbs. Wildfire was a driver of change for some functional groups, with greater change occurring in AIM plots that burned between the two time periods compared with those that did not. Our results are consistent with previous studies showing that many native shrub-dominated plant communities in the Great Basin have been replaced by exotic annuals. Our study demonstrates that SVIM data will be an important resource for researchers interested in quantifying vegetation change through time across public rangelands in the western United States.     

Evidence-based Medicine in Small Mammals

Evidence-based medicine in small exotic mammals is often considered challenging because of a lack of information related to reference data, validated diagnostic tests, treatment outcome, side effects, long-term prognosis, and financial constraints of the owner. However, despite this lack of information, it is still possible to provide good medical care to small exotic mammals and confirm a disease diagnosis that can be properly treated. With many small exotic mammal cases, the condition of the animal and, ultimately, the disease diagnosis, may not be familiar to the attending veterinarian, and in some cases the disease itself may not have ever been described in that species in the scientific literature. This article describes the process of diagnosing hyperthyroidism in a guinea pig using a recommended patient assessment, diagnostic, and treatment protocol.     

Fuel Reduction,Seeding, and Vegetation in a Juniper Woodland

Western juniper has increased in density and distribution in the interior Pacific Northwest since the late 1800s. Management goals for many juniper woodlands are now focused on reducing tree densities and promoting biodiversity, prompting the use of fuel reduction treatments. Fuel reduction often involves mechanical cutting and disturbances such as slash pile burning and skid trail formation. While these activities may reduce tree densities, the extent to which they will restore native biodiversity and community composition, particularly in woodlands invaded by exotic annual grasses, is unclear. We evaluated the effects of juniper cutting in two experiments of disturbance type (slash piles and skid trails) followed by three native seeding treatments (cultivar, locally sourced, and no seed) on vegetation in central Oregon. Prior to cutting, native perennial grass cover and richness were positively associated and exotic grass cover was negatively associated with juniper basal area. After cutting and 2 yr after seeding, species composition was altered for both disturbance types. Some seeded areas had higher total species richness, higher native species richness, higher cover of seeded species, and higher overall cover compared to areas that were not seeded. But seeding effectiveness in mitigating exotic species spread varied based on exotic species functional group, pretreatment propagule pressure, and experiment disturbance type. Neither seed mix lowered exotic grass cover. There was limited evidence that the cultivar mix outperformed the locally sourced native seed mix. In the short term, fuel reduction activities may have facilitated further conversion of this woodland to an exotic grassland, but longer-term evaluation is needed. In juniper woodlands that have been invaded by exotic species, fuel reduction activities may facilitate further invasion, and exotic species control may be needed to limit invasion and promote native vegetation.     

Perioperative supportive care and monitoring.

Supportive care minimizes the adverse physiologic effects of anesthesia, surgery, and preexisting disease. Monitoring detects physiologic perturbations, ensures appropriate anesthetic depth, and assesses the efficacy of supportive care. The principles of monitoring and supportive care are similar in small exotic species; however, an understanding of comparative anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology is necessary to apply these principles.     

Basics of cytology and fluid cytology.

Cytology as a diagnostic tool has played a major role in the management of diseases affecting domestic mammals for over 20 years. It has also become a valuable diagnostic tool in the evaluation of nondomestic or the so-called "exotic" animal patients, such as small mammals and the lower vertebrates. Common cytologic specimens used to evaluate the exotic animal patient include aspirates of masses and organs, imprints of biopsy material, tracheal wash samples, aspiration of abdominal or coelomic fluid, and fecal smears. In general, the same cytologic sample collection and preparation techniques used for domestic mammals also apply to exotic animal patients. The interpretation of the cytology specimen is generally the same as that of domestic mammals.     

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Rabbits and Rodents

Rabbits and rodents are popular pets and are often presented to veterinarians for evaluation and medical treatment. Anesthesia in exotic pets is required for many diagnostic and surgical procedures and is associated with a higher perioperative risk in rabbits and rodents when compared with dogs and cats. Inhalation anesthetic agents are commonly used as the sole source of anesthesia in small rodents, whereas injectable agents in combination with inhalation anesthesia are often used for rabbits and larger rodents. Analgesia is an important component of exotic pet medicine. Although it may be difficult to recognize signs of pain in companion exotic mammals, adequate pain management should always be provided. Opioid and nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs are the analgesic medications of choice, but others should be considered (e.g., local anesthetic agents). This article provides an update of the current literature regarding anesthesia and analgesia in rabbits and rodents.     

Orthopedic radiography in exotic animal practice.

Radiographic examination of exotic animal species provides significant diagnostic information to the practitioner so long as attention is paid to positioning and radiographic detail and if variations in normal radiographic anatomy are contemplated. Fracture of pneumatic bones (humerus or femur) in avian patients often results in subcutaneous emphysema, much like an open fracture. If fracture alignment is anatomical, there is generally little callous formation visible in avian and reptile patients; however, if malunion occurs, then certainly callous can be visualized. Aggressive or excessive periosteal proliferation in exotic species often predicts osteomyelitis. Practitioners can increase their diagnostic capabilities and thereby decrease any preconceived anxiety by applying the same general interpretive concepts used in the radiography of more routine small animal patients and by evaluating the resultant radiographs in a systematic manner. With the exception of certain anatomical differences and alterations in response to injury, exotic animal species suffer the same types of orthopedic disease do dogs and cats.     

Future directions in training of veterinarians for small exotic mammal medicine: expectations, potential, opportunities, and mandates

Small exotic mammals have been companions to people for almost as long as dogs and cats have been. The challenge for veterinary medicine today is to decipher the tea leaves and determine whether small mammals are fad or transient pets or whether they will still be popular in 20 years. This article focuses on pet small-mammal medicine, as the concerns of the laboratory animal are better known and may differ profoundly from those of a pet. Dozens of species of small exotic mammals are kept as pets. These pet small-mammal species have historically served human purposes other than companionship: for hunting, for their pelts, or for meat. Now, they are common pets. At present, most veterinary schools lack courses in the medical care of these animals. Veterinary students need at least one required class to introduce them to these pets. Currently, there are no small-mammal-only residency programs. This does not correspond with current needs. The only way to judge current needs is by assessing what employers are looking for. In a recent JAVMA classified section, almost 30% of small-animal practices in suburban/urban areas were hiring veterinarians with knowledge of exotic pets. All veterinarians must recognize that pet exotic small mammals have changed the landscape of small-animal medicine. It is a reality that, today, many small-animal practices see pet exotic small mammals on a daily basis.