典型液力喷头在风洞环境中的飘移特性试验与评价

依照联邦德国农林生物研究中心(BBA)对植保机械的测试准则和技术，对国内常用的5种典型液力喷头的雾化性能参数进行了测试，并在不同风洞环境条件下(压力、风速和温湿度)的飘移特性进行了对比试验及评价。通过测定在喷头下风向2 m处垂直测试平面内的雾滴飘移量计算出飘移潜在指数(DIX)，用于评价喷头的飘移特性，是一种简单实用的有效方法。结果表明，小型号喷头的飘移性远大于大型号喷头；雾滴大小和风速是影响飘移的最主要因素。     

A Chronic Plant Test for the Assessment of Contaminated Soils. Part 1: Method development (9 pp)

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PREAMBLE According to the German Federal Soil Protection Act (BBodSchG 1998), the habitat function of soils must be protected. Despite the fact that in the Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (BBodSchV 1999) it has not been established how this goal can be reached reliably, it is clear that such a biological function can only adequately be assessed using biological test methods. This is especially true when a soil is contaminated by a mixture of often unknown chemicals. In such a case the use of chemical analysis aiming at a small range of known substances is not sufficient and must therefore be supplemented by biological methods. For this reason, several standardised test methods are available (e.g. using earthworms, collembolans or plants; Römbke and Knacker 2003; ISO 2003). Since acute tests are usually not sensitive enough for the assessment of potentially contaminated soils (e.g. Hund-Rinke et al. 2002), chronic tests like the earthworm reproduction tests (ISO 1998) are recommended for this purpose.

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A chronic plant test for the determination of phytotoxicity was missing until quite recently. The term phytotoxicity is understood here as the capacity of a compound or a contaminated soil to cause temporary or long-lasting damage to plants (EPPO 1997). Therefore, the German Ministry for Education and Research sponsored a project (1997 – 1999) in which – based on existing standardised methods – such a chronic plant laboratory test was developed and partly validated (Kalsch and Römbke 2000). The new test can be used for the evaluation of single chemicals (see Part 1 of this mini-series) as well as for the assessment of contaminated or remediated soils (see Part 2 of this mini-series).

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ABSTRACT Background and Scope. As part of the efforts to improve the biological testing of contaminated soils, the German government sponsored the standardisation of a chronic plant bioassay. This new test is based on experiences with various acute plant tests (e.g. published by OECD or ISO) and existing North American Plant-Life-Cycle Bioassays. In this contribution the characteristic properties of the test are described.

Methods

The test can be performed either with Brassica rapa (turnip) or Avena sativa (oat). Its duration is 35 to 64 days with OECD artificial soil and a German standard field soil acting as controls. Water and nutrients are provided by an automatic wick irrigation system. Besides measuring biomass and shoot length, the number of pods, seeds and flowers are applied as chronic measurement endpoints. During the development of the test, TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene) and Pyrene were used as model test substances.

Results

Pyrene did not affect B. rapa (turnip) in concentrations of up to 10.000 mg/kg soil (due to the often low sensitivity of A. sativa (oat) no further test with this substance was performed). Depending on the endpoint the results varied in the tests with TNT. With few exceptions, the NOEC (No Observed Effect Concentration) values were determined as 55.5 mg TNT/kg soil for B. rapa (turnip) and as 75 (unfertilised) and 150 (fertilised) mg TNT/kg soil for A. sativa (oat). The EC50-values varied between 96.3 and 207.2 mg TNT/kg soil for B. rapa (turnip) and 183.1 – 505.6 mg TNT/kg soil for A. sativa (oat), depending on the endpoint.

Outlook

The results of this work have been used to prepare a draft test guideline, which has recently been standardised by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO). Practical experiences with this test system are described in Part II of this mini series.     

A Chronic Plant Test for the Assessment of Contaminated Soils. Part 2: Testing of contaminated soils (10 pp)

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PREAMBLE According to the German Federal Soil Protection Act (BBodSchG 1998), the habitat function of soils must be protected. Despite the fact that in the Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (BBodSchV 1999) it has not been established how this goal can be reached reliably, it is clear that such a biological function can only adequately be assessed using biological test methods. This is especially true when a soil is contaminated by a mixture of often unknown chemicals. In such a case the use of chemical analysis aiming at a small range of known substances is not sufficient and must therefore be supplemented by biological methods. For this reason, several standardised test methods are available (e.g. using earthworms, collembolans or plants; Römbke and Knacker 2003; ISO 2003). Since acute tests are usually not sensitive enough for the assessment of potentially contaminated soils (e.g. Hund-Rinke et al. 2002), chronic tests like the earthworm reproduction tests (ISO 1998) are recommended for this purpose.

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A chronic plant test for the determination of phytotoxicity was missing until quite recently. The term phytotoxicity is understood here as the capacity of a compound or a contaminated soil to cause temporary or long-lasting damage to plants (EPPO 1997). Therefore, the German Ministry for Education and Research sponsored a project (1997 – 1999) in which – based on existing standardised methods – such a chronic plant laboratory test was developed and partly validated (Kalsch and Römbke 2000). The new test can be used for the evaluation of single chemicals (see Part 1 of this mini-series) as well as for the assessment of contaminated or remediated soils (see Part 2 of this mini-series).

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ABSTRACT Background and Scope. A new chronic plant test system which is based on experiences with various acute plant tests (e.g. published by OECD or ISO) and existing North American Plant-Life-Cycle Bioassays was standardised in a project sponsored by the German government. Characteristic properties of the test system, which can be performed either with Brassica rapa (turnip rape) or Avena sativa (oat), are described in Part I of this mini-series.

Methods

This new test was used to assess the effects of natural soil samples contaminated with TNT (2,4,6-Trinitrotoluene) or PAHs (poly-aromatic hydrocarbons). The soils were tested after taken from the field as well as after being remediated. Different control and reference soils were used to evaluate the test results. In addition, they were compared with the results of tests in which either TNT or Pyrene was spiked to field and standard soils (see Part I of this mini-series).

Results

All contaminated soils showed clear effects in the Chronic Plant Test (usually B. rapa was more sensitive than A. sativa). LUFA 2.2 standard soil and OECD artificial soil are well-suited as control and mixture substrates, while reference soils collected at uncontaminated sites were several times phytotoxic. In most of the latter cases, soil properties could be identified as the main cause of these effects (e.g. the pH value). While in general the sensitivity of the reproduction and biomass endpoints did not differ much, it is recommended to measure different endpoints (i.e. biomass and reproduction) due to the different mode-of-action of contaminants. In the case of TNT a good agreement between the results of single chemical tests and tests with TNT-contaminated soils was found (due to the minimal effects of Pyrene the same statement is not possible for PAHs).

Outlook

The results of this work have been used to prepare a draft test guideline, which has recently been standardised by the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO). Based on these experiences, recommendations are given how this chronic test system could be used as part of a test battery for the assessment of contaminated soils.     

Experiences with Novel Approaches in Earthworm Testing Alternatives (7 pp)

Goal, Scope and Background   The earthworm avoidance test is a sensitive screening test. Currently, two test designs, a two-chamber system and a six-chamber system, are under standardization. In the scope of the present study, the two test systems are compared. To assess the results, two procedures are applied, which are based on a threshold value and a statistical method. Moreover, the sensitivity of the avoidance test is compared with the sensitivity of the reproduction test. Methods   The avoidance behaviour of E. fetida towards five chemicals (Cd, Cu, PCP, TBT, TNT) was tested in a sandy and a loamy soil. The ecotoxicological test was performed according to the draft guideline ISO/DIS 17512-1. The results were compared with the number of offspring determined in the reproduction test carried out according to ISO 11268-2. Results and Discussion   The results demonstrate that the avoidance behaviour towards organic chemicals and heavy metals is a suitable screening method showing first tendencies of a chemical's effects on the habitat function of soils. Effects caused by chemical substances become visible at low concentrations and within short test periods. The sensitivity of the reproduction test and the avoidance test is principally comparable; in some cases, the avoidance test showed more sensitive reactions. The dose-response-relationships were more pronounced in the two-chamber test than in the six-chamber-system. Recommendation and Outlook   The two-chamber-system proved to be more feasible than the six-chamber-system. As the sensitivity of the avoidance test and the reproduction test is comparable, the avoidance test can be considered as a suitable screening test as well. A possible field of application may be the selection of soil samples for which the reproduction assay seems necessary. To assess contaminated or remediated soils, the earthworm reproduction test is recommended as an indicator for the habitat function of the soils. To reduce costs, the labour intensive reproduction test could be largely replaced by the avoidance test in performing the earth-worm reproduction test only for relevant samples. Before the Draft International Standard of the guideline will be adopted as an ISO Guideline, there will be sufficient time left to gain further international experience required to finalize the method.     

Relationship between spring barley productivity and growing management in Lithuania’s lowland

Purpose: The current study was aimed to analyse the occurrence of water and nitrogen stress in spring barley and estimate their effects on the crop performance under low-input and conventional management.

Materials and methods: Field experiments were conducted during 2007–2009 at the Institute of Agriculture, Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry on a sandy-loam soil. The management systems were: (a) conventional, with the application of fertilizers and pesticides adjusted to target 5 t ha^?1 grain yield; and (b) low-input, without fertilizers and pesticides. Biomass and nitrogen concentration, leaf area index, soil moisture, drainage water runoff and ground water table were measured periodically during the growing season.

Results: In all three experimental years, the annual precipitation was close or above the climate normal, but a large part of the rainfall (up to 310 mm) was lost through drainage contributing to the occurrence of temporary moisture deficit in late spring or summer. Water stress resulted in a lower spring barley biomass accumulation rate and lower biomass yield in the years characterized by sub-optimal rainfall distribution. Direct measurements of water retention in the soil and DSSAT model simulations gave relatively good indication of water stress occurrence. Under the low-input management, nitrogen nutrition level was a major constraint for spring barley biomass and grain yield formation.

Conclusions: Under Central Lithuania’s conditions, spring barley frequently experiences temporary water stress, because a relatively high proportion of annual precipitation is lost during the non-growing period. This crop can benefit from anticipated increased precipitation and carbon dioxide levels if adequately provided with nitrogen.     

Monitoring of soil organisms: a set of standardized field methods proposed by ISO

Following the need for methods suitable for the assessment of the habitat function of soil (i.e. the ability of soil to act as an environment for organisms), particularly in Europe, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is harmonizing a standard called “soil quality—sampling of soil invertebrates” now include as many as four parts that are currently close to finalization: (1) ISO/DIS 23611-1: hand-sorting and formalin extraction of earthworms; (2) ISO/DIS 23611-2: extraction of microarthropods (Collembola and Acarina); (3) ISO/CD 23611-3: extraction of enchytraeids; (4) ISO/WD 23611-4: sampling, extraction and identification of free-living stages of terrestrial nematodes All drafts cover the technical details of the most appropriate methods, but also contain modifications of the methods required in special cases (e.g. when working in different climatic regions like the tropics). It is proposed to use these methods in all studies collecting data on soil organism communities for legal purposes such as long-term monitoring or soil quality assessment.     

党参化肥农药减施增效栽培技术规程

化肥农药减施增效可助力党参产业绿色健康发展。为更好地指导甘肃省党参种植生产中化肥和农药施用,针对党参种植生产中化肥农药过量施用、养分利用率低、防控过度依赖化学农药等问题,经过多年试验研究和生产示范,从范围、规范性引用文件、术语和定义、产地环境、化肥减施、种苗移栽、田间管理、主要病虫害防控、采收等方面总结提出了党参化肥农药减施增效栽培技术规程。     

Effect of nitrogen and potassium fertilizer on growth,herbage and oil yield of irrigated palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii [roxb.] wats. var. motia burk) in a semi-arid tropical climate

The world's agricultural production is increasing by 1 to 2 per cent annually and has been enough to satisfy the growing world population's need for food. Breeding, fertilisation and crop protection have decidedly contributed to that progress in productivity. But since the 1960s, agriculture has been more and more conceived by the public as an environment-contaminating industry. The public is concerned about water contamination with nitrate as a result of the use of fertilisers, and about harmful effects of chemical plant protection products on soil, water, air, animals and wild plants. The public discussion has not remained without consequences. Sustainability of development has become a central political objective in all spheres of social life, and in all world regions. Sustainable development concerns economic, ecological as well as social objectives, and is also the guideline for a renovation of agriculture. Any concepts and strategies integrating environmental aspects into agricultural production are linked with the objective of sustainable development. Discussion on sustainable agriculture has become more concrete on the basis of the Brundtland Report and Agenda 21 , as well as the various follow-up meetings of the 1992 Conference of Rio. Although efforts towards sustainable development in agriculture encounter widespread scepticism, clear progress is to be noted since that discussion has intensified. Farmers have paid more attention to new farming practices. Environmental aspects now play an important role when extension services advise farmers on fertilisation and crop protection. Research has contributed essentially to the change in agriculture towards sustainable production. Sustainability in agriculture has also been expressed in new legal regulations. Principles of good professional practice in applying fertilisers, as it is required by the Fertilisers Act from the year 1989, have been spelled out more clearly in a legal regulation issued on 26 January 1996 (Federal Law Gazette part I of 06 February 1996, p. 118). Principles of good professional practice in crop protection were published in Bundesanzeiger (Federal Gazette) No. 220 a of 21 November 1998. Principles of integrated crop protection were first discussed by representatives of agriculture, environment protection offices and researchers at a workshop at Biologische Bundesanstalt für Land- und Forstwirtschaft (BBA, Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry) in Kleinmachnow on 23° March 2000. The debate on sustainability centres around the aspects of economic and social efficiency of measures taken, and their effects on the environment. The following article deals with some basic aspects of efficiency on the one hand, and effects/emission on the environment on the other, of fertilisers and crop protection products as important input factors in agriculture. Crop husbandry always is an interference with nature. The Lüneburger Heide cropping region is a memorial of ecologically out-dated land management. Today, sustainable and at the same time efficient agriculture can only be realised with modern methods based on sound knowledge. This includes mineral fertilisation and chemical crop protection. Cropping permanently draws nutrients from the soil-plant system. They have to be refilled by fertilisation. If no fertilising measures are taken at all, the humus layer of the soil declines and soil degrades. The decline in fertility will result in yield losses of between 70 and 90%. In contrast, combination of organic and mineral fertilisers has continually added to soil fertility. This is reflected in the humus content of the soil, which is by about a quarter higher than it was a hundred years ago. Farmers resorting solely to mineral fertilisation produce yields lower by 5-10% than those combining mineral and organic fertilisers. If only organic fertilisers are used, this may reduce yields by between 10 and 40%, depending on the site. Unwanted side-effects of fertilisation (such as leaching of nitrates) may be reduced to a tolerable level by precise input of nutrients, improved methods such as precise fertiliser input depending on the condition of certain field patches, and by integrated crop protection, which relies on synergetic effects of various measures. Germany has for these reasons witnessed a relaxation of environmental pressure from excessive nutrient input. If crop protection measures were abandoned, pests and diseases would reduce yields by between 40 and 80 per cent. Our own trials about energy input-output proportions have shown a ratio of 1:4.6 with use of fertilisers (100kg N/ha), and a ratio of 1:8.6 with use of fertiliser and chemical plant protection products. The risk potential of modern chemical plant protection products has permanently decreased over the past few decades and is generally about one tenth of the values of 15 years ago. Integrated crop protection, which combines various methods of crop protection and reduces the use of chemical crop protection products to a necessary minimum, is the "optimal solution for the future" and "contributes to the sustainability of agriculture", as it is said in the Agenda 21 programme adopted by the 1992 environmental conference in Rio.     

Ecotoxicological assessment of the effects of glyphosate and chlorpyrifos in an Argentine soya field

Background, Aim and Scope

Continuous application of pesticides may pollute soils and affect non-target organisms. Soil is a complex ecosystem; its components can modulate the effects of pesticides. Therefore, it is recommended to evaluate the potential environmental risk of these compounds in local conditions. We performed an integrated field-laboratory study on an Argentine soya field sprayed with glyphosate and chlorpyrifos under controlled conditions. Our aim was to compare the sensitivity of a series of endpoints for the assessment of adverse effects of the extensive use of these agrochemicals.

Materials and Methods

A RR soya field in a traditional farming area of Argentina was sprayed with glyphosate (GLY) or chlorpyrifos (CPF) formulations at the commercially recommended rates, according to a randomized complete block design with 3 replicates. In laboratory assays, Eisenia fetida andrei were exposed to soil samples (0–10 cm depth) collected between the rows of soya. Endpoints linked to behavior and biological activity (reproduction, avoidance behavior and bait-lamina tests) and cellular/subcellular assays (Neutral Red Retention Time — NRRT; DNA damage — Comet assay) were tested. Field assays included litterbag and bait-lamina tests. Physico/chemical analyses were performed on soil samples.

Results

GLY reduced cocoon viability, decreasing the number of juveniles. Moreover, earthworms avoided soils treated with GLY. No effects on either reproduction or on avoidance were observed at the very low CPF concentration measured in the soils sampled 10 days after treatment. Both pesticides caused a reduction in the feeding activity under laboratory and field conditions. NRRT was responsive to formulations of CPF and GLY. Comet assay showed significantly increased DNA damage in earthworms exposed to CPF treated soils. No significant differences in DNA migration were observed with GLY treated soils. Litterbag field assay showed no differences between treated and control plots.

Discussion

The ecotoxicological effects of pesticides can be assessed by monitoring the status of communities in real ecosystems or through the use of laboratory toxicity tests. Litterbag field test showed no influence of the treatments on the organic matter breakdown, suggesting a scarce contribution of soil macrofauna. The bait-lamina test, however, seemed to be useful for detecting the effects of GLY and CPF treatments on the activity of the soil fauna. CPF failed to give significant differences with the controls in the reproduction test and the results were not conclusive in the avoidance test. Although the field population density of earthworms could be affected by multiple factors, the effects observed on the reproduction and avoidance tests caused by GLY could contribute to its decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions. Biomarkers measuring effects on suborganism level could be useful to predict adverse effects on soil organisms and populations. Among them, NRRT, a lysosomal destabilization biomarker, resulted in demonstrating more sensitivity than the reproduction and avoidance tests. The Comet assay was responsive only to CPF. Since DNA damage can have severe consequences on populations, it could be regarded as an important indicator to be used in the assessment of soil health.

Conclusions

Reproduction and avoidance tests were sensitive indicators of GLY exposure, with the former being more labor intensive. Bait-lamina test was sensitive to both CPF and GLY. NRRT and Comet assays revealed alterations at a subcellular level, and could be considered complementary to the biological activity tests. Because of their simplicity, some of these bioassays seemed to be appropriate pre-screening tests, prior to more extensive and invasive testing.

Recommendations and Perspectives

This study showed deleterious effects of GLY and CPF formulations when applied at the nominal concentrations recommended for soya crops. Further validation is needed before these endpoints could be used as field monitoring tools in Argentine soya soils (ecotoxicological risk assessment — ERA tools).

     

Pilotstudie zur Gleichwertigkeit oder Vergleichbarkeit der Korngrößenbestimmung von Bodenproben nach E DIN ISO 11277:06.94 (Pipettmethode) und mit dem Sedigraphen

Pilot study to test the equivalence or comparability of soil‐particle‐size analysis according to E DIN ISO 11277:06.94 (pipette method) and by the use of the sedigraph According to Federal Soil Protection Ordinance (BBodschV), the recommended technique for the determination of particle size is the Köhn method (E DIN ISO 11277:06.94, 1994), a technique that is relatively time consuming and laborious. The BBodSchV, however, allows the application of alternative analytical methods provided the equivalence or comparability to the legally required method is proven. We tested the less laborious sedigraph method to determine the <63 μm fractions of soil particles (coarse (gU), medium (mU), fine silt (fU), and clay (T)) at 30 soil samples from Bavaria. The equivalence of results for the fractions (gU, mU, fU, and T) as derived from the Köhn and sedigraph methods was tested according to the guidelines of E DIN 38402–71:10.01 (2001). Following these guidelines, equivalence exists for none of the fractions gU, mU, fU, and T. The comparability of results for each fraction could nevertheless be established by means of a highly significant linear‐regression model (gU: r² = 0.89; mU: r² = 0.93; fU: r² = 0.84; T: r² = 0.97). An extensive validation of the achieved statistical regressions based on independent samples is planned in a subsequent study. The application of the sedigraph will speed up analyses by approximately 30% as compared to the conventional Köhn method.     

中国绒茧蜂属Apanteles Foerster一新种(膜翅目:茧蜂科)

报道采自中国福建、云南的小腹茧蜂亚科Microgastrinae绒茧蜂属Apanteles Foerster一新种，即侧脊绒茧蜂Apanteles latericarinatus,sp.nov.。模式标本存放于福建农林大学植保系益虫室。     

Inoculating maize fields with earthworms (Aporrectodea trapezoides) and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (Rhizophagus intraradices) improves mycorrhizal community structure and increases plant nutrient uptake

Earthworms and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are important macrofauna and microorganisms of the rhizosphere. The effect of the inoculation of soil with earthworms (Aporrectodea trapezoides) and mycorrhiza (Rhizophagus intraradices) on the community structure of mycorrhizal fungi and plant nutrient uptake was determined with split plots in a maize field. Maize plants were inoculated or not inoculated with AMF, each treated with or without earthworms. Wheat straw was added as a feed source for earthworms. Inoculating AMF significantly increased maize yield (p?<?0.05), and the yield was further enhanced by the addition of earthworms. Alkaline phosphomonoesterase activities, soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) and nitrogen (SMBN) increased with the addition of both earthworms and AMF. Soil inorganic N and available K were positively affected by earthworms, while available P showed a negative relationship with AMF. Treatment with both AMF and earthworms increased shoot and root biomass as well as their N and P uptake by affecting soil phosphomonoesterase and urease activities, SMBC, SMBN, and the content of available nutrients in soil. The applied fungal inoculants were successfully traced by polymerase chain reaction with novel primers (AML1 and AML2) which target the small subunit rRNA gene. The amplicons were classified by restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequencing. Moreover, field inoculation with inocula of non-native isolates of R. intraradices appeared to have stimulated root colonization and yield of maize. Adding earthworms might influence native AMF community, and the corresponding abundance increased after earthworms were inoculated, which has positive effects on maize growth.     

Habitat selection of the Eurasian woodcock in winter in relation to earthworms availability

The Eurasian woodcock (Scolopax rusticola) is a game species experiencing high hunting pressure, long-term modifications of its habitats, and with questions regarding its current conservation status. Winter is a season of highest concentration of birds and hunting pressure but woodcock precise habitat requirements are poorly known. It is crucial to assess threats and to develop sustainable management options for the conservation of woodcock populations. During three consecutive winters, we monitored 65 individual woodcocks fitted with radio-tags in Brittany, France. Habitat selection was analysed using GIS and compositional analysis, in relation to vegetation types, soil variables (humus types) and the abundance of their main prey (earthworms). Woodcocks used different habitats diurnally and nocturnally, generally preferring areas with high earthworm biomass. Diurnal habitat selection in forests was associated with humus type (preference for mulls, rich in earthworms) and dense shrub strata (better protection). Hedges with a high density of trees and shrub were also important habitat. At night, grazed meadows were the preferred habitat, containing five times higher biomass of earthworms compared to cultivated fields. Sustainable management of populations requires protection and management of habitats that incorporates food and cover. Forestry practices should preserve rich humus types and coppices by choosing tree species that ameliorate the soil and soil tilling. Changes in landscapes and intensive agricultural practices are current threats to woodcock populations: destruction of hedges, decrease of permanent grazed meadows, impoverishment of soils fauna biomasses from ploughing and chemical applications. However, woodcocks may benefit from the recent development of set-asides, grass field-borders and simplified farm practices (no-tillage and direct sowing).     

Monitoring the effects of pesticide pellets to address farmers' concerns on soil fauna,specifically earthworms

Slugs are a major pest in arable agriculture that are typically controlled by using pesticide-impregnated pellets (molluscicides). We received multiple requests from farmers in 2018 for research into the impact of slug pellets on earthworms because they had been told that ferric-based pellets were ‘worm-friendly’. We measured soil fauna feeding activities within Lumbricus terrestris middens on a replicated field plot experiment comparing the recommended product rates of a metaldehyde (4%) based or ferric phosphate EDDS (3%) based slug pellets. There was a significant decrease in feeding activity in the presence of either type of slug pellet, particularly in the top 25 mm of the soil indicating movement away from the pesticide. This could be explained by the significantly lower abundance (numbers and biomass) of earthworms in the topsoil. Four months after ferric phosphate-based slug pellet application, there was no significant difference between the control and treated plots in earthworm abundance, indicating the effects were temporary. In the laboratory, individual Lumbricus terrestris earthworms consumed up to 4 slug pellets over 14 days and no significant differences in biomass were measured. A burrowing fitness assay indicated that earthworms exposed to ferric phosphate-based slug pellets burrowed to a greater depth. This suggests an avoidance behaviour response, which could also explain the field results. A consultation with farmers (n = 68) rated this information service as useful and indicated widespread interest in minimizing the effects of pesticides on non-target soil fauna.     

Reflectance Spectroscopy (Vis-NIR) for Assessing Soil Heavy Metals Concentrations Determined by two Different Analytical Protocols,Based on ISO 11466 and ISO 14869-1

This study aimed to investigate the potency of soil reflectance spectroscopy in the visible and near infrared (Vis-NIR) spectral regions in estimating soil heavy metal pollution in the western coastal front of Thessaloniki (N. Greece) and how the protocol used for chemical analyses can affect the models’ performance. For this purpose, 49 topsoil samples were collected and the concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, and Pb were determined by two different analytical methods, i.e., ISO 11466 based on the technique of atomic absorbance spectrometry (AAS) and ISO 14869-1 using the technique of inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry (ICP-AES). The spectral signatures were applied for modeling the metal concentrations by using the partial least squares regression (PLSR) method. To eliminate the “noise” of data and enhance the models’ accuracy, four spectral pre-treatment methods were used. The overall results showed that there is heavy metal pollution in the soils of specific areas in the studied region and that the use of different chemical analytical methods can affect the performance of examined prediction models. Better prediction models were created for the cases of Pb, Cu, and Cr concentrations, which were estimated by the application of ISO 14869-1, while for the case of Cd better prediction models were obtained, by the application of ISO 11466. These results may indicate that soil reflectance spectroscopy can measure the total heavy metal content in soil samples.     

A guidance for the assessment and evaluation of sediment quality a German Approach based on ecotoxicological and chemical measurements

The recommendations presented in this paper use an integrated hierarchical approach combining toxicological, chemical and ecological information to assess and evaluate the quality of sediments. For this reason, biological methods, in combination with the tools of chemical analysis, are given priority when examining the quality of the sediment to establish adverse effects. The trigger is the biotest, instead of chemical methods commonly used. The individual methods are presented for a German approach and can be adopted to other countries by applying ISO, OECD methods. Support is provided on how to best integrate data generated using different assessment tools. Keywords: Bioassays; biological and chemical analysis; ecotoxicology; integrated assessment; sediment assessment; sediment quality; stepwise strategy     

The productivity and energy potential of alfalfa,fodder galega and maize plants under the conditions of the nemoral zone

This study aimed to investigate the productivity of two C3 legumes – alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and fodder galega (Galega orientalis Lam.) – and the feasibility of their use as renewable energy resources. Maize (Zea mays L.), a well-established bioenergy crop belonging to the C4 plant group, was used as a baseline in comparison. Field trials were conducted at the Institute of Agriculture at the Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry during the period 2012–2013. The perennial forage legumes were grown without mineral or organic fertilizers. The maize was grown (a) without and (b) with nitrogen fertilizers. The perennial forage legumes were harvested three times per growing season. Carbon (C), nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S) contents of biomass were determined by using a dry combustion method. The calorific value of biomass was determined by a combustion method using an IKA bomb calorimeter. The largest share of the total annual yield of biomass of perennial forage legumes was obtained from the first cut and amounted to 54% and 57% for alfalfa and fodder galega, respectively. The S content of biomass was similar in all crops investigated, but the N content was higher in perennial forage legumes. Biomass C content did not differ between the crops, but the C:N ratio was widely varied – from 28–35 in fertilized maize, to 16–17 in alfalfa and 15–16 in fodder galega. This study showed that alfalfa and fodder galega can be grown as energy crops under less intensive management; however, the specific chemical composition of biomass should be considered before choosing the most appropriate conversion process.     

Livestock grazing activities and wild boar rooting affect alpine earthworm communities in the Central Pyrenees (Spain)

In alpine areas, shifts in traditional grazing activities are globally affecting ecosystem properties and rural livelihoods. The ongoing decrease in extensive husbandry, with a decline in sheep numbers and a relative increase in cattle stocking rates, has resulted in the abandonment of large alpine grazing areas. This pastoral change has been recently associated with increased disturbances of wild boar (Sus scrofa), mainly within cattle-stocked ranges. In turn, cattle areas favor earthworm communities, a preferred trophic resource for wild boars in mountain environments. However, it is unknown whether wild boar disturbances, together with grazing activities, can affect earthworm communities. Our aim is to analyze the abundance, richness and ecological categories of earthworms and soil parameters (soil C and N concentrations, moisture, and C:N ratio) in relation to the occurrence of wild boar disturbances and grazing activities at different stocking pressures. We sampled two different grazing scenarios differing in the distribution of cattle along a grazing gradient, which was represented by three levels of stocking pressure (high, intermediate and low). Our results showed a complex effect of grazing activities and disturbances on the abundance and richness of earthworms, along with variations in C:N ratio and soil moisture, especially with increasing cattle presence. At high-stocking pressures differences in earthworm abundance and richness between disturbed and undisturbed areas were limited, whereas at intermediate-stocking pressures earthworms were favored by wild boar disturbances. Ecological categories of earthworms responded differently; endogeic species were the most affected by grazing pressures and wild boar rooting, with highest occurrence at high-stocking pressures and within boar disturbed areas. In sum, pastoral use and soil disturbances affected earthworm community structure and composition in complex ways. These results indicate an interaction of processes that is relevant to understand current changes in alpine ecosystems.     

Comparison of postharvest practices used for cereal straw decomposition in a clay loam soil

During 2008–2011 model field experiments were carried out at the Joni?k?lis Experimental Station of Lithuanian Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry on a clay loam Endocalcaric Endogleyic Cambisol. The study was aimed to establish the comparison of various postharvest practices (mineral nitrogen fertilizer alone or together with a bioactivator Penergetic k, livestock slurry, red clover biomass, and straw incorporation in the soil by a stubble cultivator at a 10 cm depth) on the acceleration of the initial (nine-month period) decomposition of winter wheat straw. During this period straw mass decomposition intensity (DIM) was 20.7–29.1%, carbon (C) concentration decreased by 6.5– 22.8%, while an increase occurred in nitrogen (N) 1.1–2.2 times. The highest straw decomposition rate was recorded when after straw incorporation autumn was warm and humid. That year straw mass C to N ratio (C/N) was 38–46. Under less favourable autumn conditions, the highest decomposition of straw was achieved having applied mineral N (with and without Penergetic) and livestock slurry and having incorporated the straw in the soil (C/N = 40–55). A slower decomposition rate was observed for the straw spread on the soil surface with mineral N addition or on undersown red clover.