Ixodid ticks on cattle belonging to small-scale farmers at 4 communal grazing areas in South Africa

Ixodid ticks were collected during the period September 1991 to August 1993 from cattle belonging to small-scale farmers utilising 4 communal grazing areas. Three of these were in North West Province and 1 in Mpumalanga province, South Africa. Ten tick species were collected in North West Province and 7 in Mpumalanga. The adults of Amblyomma hebraeum, Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi were most numerous in North West Province, while in Mpumalanga Boophilus decoloratus comprised more than 75% of the total population. Amblyomma hebraeum was present on all grazing areas, and heavy infestations of adults occurred during the period October to May on 1 of these. Few B. decoloratus were collected in North West Province, chiefly because the sampling method was inadequate, and most of these were present during early summer (October to December) and late summer and autumn (March to May). The initially low population of B. decoloratus in Mpumalanga increased substantially towards the conclusion of the survey, probably because of the cessation of dipping. Boophilus microplus was present in small numbers on 2 grazing areas in the North West Province. Adult Hyalomma marginatum rufipes reached peak numbers from December to February and Hyalomma truncatum from February to April in the North West Province. Only H. marginatum rufipes was collected in Mpumalanga. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus was present on all the grazing areas, with most adults present from December to April. Most adult Rhipicephalus evertsi evertsi were collected from September to April and Rhipicephalus simus was present during the period October-April.     

Ixodid ticks on dogs in the eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

The objective of this study was to determine the species composition and geographic distribution of ixodid ticks infesting domestic dogs in the eastern region of the Eastern Cape Province. Seventy-two communal cattle dip-tanks within this region were randomly selected as survey localities and their geographic coordinates recorded. In addition to ticks that were collected from five cattle and five goats at each of the dip-tanks, ticks were also collected from five dogs whenever possible. No dogs were available at 19 dip-tanks and no ticks were collected from dogs at 13 dip-tanks, while ticks were collected from 132 of 200 dogs at 40 dip-tanks. Eight ixodid tick species were collected from these dogs, and Haemaphysalis leachi followed by Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus simus were present on dogs at the largest number of dip-tanks. Seven dogs were simultaneously infested with three tick species and one with four species. The geographic distributions of Amblyomma hebraeum, H. leachi, R. appendiculatus and R. simus recovered from the dogs lay within the ranges previously reported for these ticks.     

Ixodid ticks on domestic dogs in the Northern Cape Province of South Africa and in Namibia

The objective of this study was to determine the species composition of ixodid ticks infesting domestic dogs in the northwestern region of the Northern Cape Province of South Africa and in Namibia. Ticks were collected from February 2008 to January 2009 from dogs presented for a variety of reasons at a veterinary clinic in the Northern Cape Province and at 3 clinics in Namibia. The ticks collected at each place were pooled separately for each month at each locality. Eleven ixodid tick species were collected from dogs in the Northern Cape Province and new locality records for Haemaphysalis colesbergensis and Ixodes rubicundus, new locality and host records for Hyalomma glabrum, and a new host record for Rhipicephalus neumanni are reported. Six tick species were collected from dogs at the 3 clinics in Namibia. The most numerous species on dogs in both countries was R. sanguineus. The present results increase the total number of ixodid tick species collected from dogs in South Africa from 25 to 28.     

Multiple strategies for resilient livelihoods in communal areas of South Africa

Livestock farming in communal areas is an activity pursued by rural households as one of a range of livelihood strategies aimed at spreading risk. The cash and non-cash benefits derived from livestock, as well as the wide range of secondary resources harvested from communal rangelands, make an important contribution to livelihood diversification and, hence, resilience. Rural development policy should therefore not focus narrowly on commercialisation of livestock production in communal areas. Rather, it should take a multifaceted approach to building livelihood resilience while providing pathways for households to escape poverty through enhancing the multiple benefits of livestock, adding value to secondary rangeland resources, and expanding the rural non-farm economy.     

Tick control methods used by resource-limited farmers and the effect of ticks on cattle in rural areas of the Eastern Cape Province,South Africa

A survey to document tick control methods used by resource-limited farmers in the control of cattle ticks in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa was conducted by interviewing 59 cattle farmers using structured questionnaires and general conversation. Information collected was on external parasites of cattle, their effects and their control methods. Ticks were reported to be a major problem causing diseases like anaplasmosis (89.8%), babesiosis (55.9%) and ehrlichiosis (16.9%), as well as wounds that predispose to screwworm infestation, tick worry and teat damage to cows troubling farmers in their farming enterprises. The main tick control methods were; acaricides provided by government, however 94.9% of the farmers interviewed were of the opinion that the dip wash is not effective in killing the ticks. As a result, farmers complement the government dipping service with their own initiatives like spraying with conventional acaricides (22%), household disinfectants such as Jeyes fluid (18.6%), used engine oil (10.2%), chickens (5.1%), manual removal (5.1%), and pouricides (1.7%). In addition, some farmers also use plants (6.8%), mainly the leaf of Aloe ferox and the bark of Ptaeroxylon obliquum. The study revealed ticks to be a major problem in the study area.     

Ixodid ticks on dogs in southern Mozambique

The objective of this study was to determine the species and distribution of ticks infesting domestic dogs in southern Mozambique. To this end 89 collections were taken from dogs and the geographic coordinates of the localities at which they were made noted. Fifty-eight of these collections were from animals in the city of Maputo and 16 from animals at rural settlements close to Maputo. A further 15 collections were made from dogs in rural environments north of Maputo. Ten ixodid tick species, of which one was only identified to genus level, were recovered. Rhipicephalus sanguineus was the most numerous of the ten species, and its prevalence and intensity of infestation were significantly higher on city dogs than on rural dogs (P < 0.01), whereas the converse was true for Haemaphysalis leachi (P < 0.01). Including the city of Maputo, the exact localities at which nine tick species were collected, were recorded.     

Ixodid ticks of angora and boer goats,grysbok, common duikers,kudus and scrub hares in Valley Bushveld in the Eastern Cape Province,South Africa

At monthly intervals from February 1983 to January 1984 two Angora goats, two Boer goats, one grysbok, Raphicerus melanotis, one common duiker, Sylvicapra grimmia, one greater kudu, Tragelaphus strepsiceros, and four scrub hares, Lepus saxatilis, were killed on a farm in Valley Bushveld in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa and examined for ticks. Seven ixodid tick species were collected, of which Rhipicephalus glabroscutatum followed by Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus oculatus were the most numerous. Amblyomma hebraeum was mainly a parasite of the two goat breeds, with the Angora goats harbouring greater numbers than the Boer goats, while large numbers of R. glabroscutatum parasitized the goats and the antelopes. Rhipicephalus oculatus was nearly exclusively a parasite of scrub hares. The larvae of A. hebraeum were most numerous on goats from May to July, the nymphs from September to November and the adults from August to December and during February, while the immature stages of R. glabroscutatum were most numerous on these animals from April to July and the adults from August to December. Peak activity periods of the latter tick were somewhat longer on kudus than on goats; the immature stages were most numerous from January to August and the adults from July to February. The larvae of R. oculatus were most numerous on scrub hares from March to May, nymphs from September to November and adults from October to December.     

The use of trees,shrubs and herbs in livestock production by communal farmers in northern KwaZulu-Natal,South Africa

A survey of the use of trees, shrubs and herbs for livestock production was conducted through questionnaires among 90 farmers in the communal areas of northern KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. The areas surveyed were located at Mtubatuba, Hluhluwe, Kwadlangezwa and Jozini. All the farmers questioned were found to own some form of livestock, mostly the Nguni breed. The commonly perceived sources of constraints on livestock production were external and internal parasites. The well known plants reported to be consumed by the animals were Vitellariopsis arginata and Rhus gueinzii. Most of the farmers (27.7%) used Cissus quadrangularis and Gnidia kraussiana for treating worm infestations and coughs in livestock. Plants used for increasing milk production were Crinum macowanii and Sarcostemma viminale. The well known plant species detrimental to livestock was Moraea spathulata, which causes diarrhoea and death.     

Acaricide resistance profiles of single- and multi-host ticks from communal and commercial farming areas in the Eastern Cape and North-West Provinces of South Africa

A field study (February 2000 to August 2001) was conducted on communal and commercial farms in the Eastern Cape and North-West Provinces of South Africa to detect the levels of tick resistance to commonly used acaricides. The larvae obtained from engorged females of the one-host tick Boophilus decoloratus, the two-host tick Rhipicepalus evertsi evertsi and the three-host ticks Amblyomma hebraeum and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus were tested against various concentrations of amitraz, chlorfenvinphos and cypermethrin using the Shaw Larval Immersion Test method. Ticks from the communal farms showed higher levels of resistance to cypermethrin and some resistance to chlorfenvinphos whilst no resistance was detected against amitraz. However, ticks from commercial farms were equally resistant to amitraz, chlorfenvinphos and cypermethrin. The B. decoloratus populations tested were considerably more resistant to all the acaricides tested than the R. evertsi evertsi, A. hebraeum and R. appendiculatus populations. This supports the hypothesis that single-host ticks develop resistance faster than multi-host ticks. This trend was recorded on most of the farms where single- and multi-host ticks co-existed. It was concluded that the use of acaricides at high frequencies and high concentrations was one of the main causes of tick resistance in the study areas. Possible factors which caused the resistance problems are discussed and acaricide management strategies recommended.     

Evaluation of the mineral status of cattle on communal grazing in the North West Province of South Africa

Twenty five cattle were randomly selected from a herd of animals grazing communally around Mogosane village in the North West Province to evaluate their mineral status based on blood and faecal analysis. Mean faecal phosphorus (P) concentration was curvilinear, increasing from July (0.99 mg/g) to December (3.63 mg/g) and decreasing to 1.29 mg/g in June. Mean P concentration in grass was also curvilinear, increasing from July (0.87 mg/g) to January (1.8 mg/g) and decreasing to 0.9 mg/g in June. There was a high correlation (r2 = 0.89) between faecal and grass P concentrations. Faecal:grass P ratios suggest that the animals were conserving P by reducing faecal P excretion during times of low dietary P. Animals maintained consistent but very low serum inorganic P (SiP) throughout the year (range 1.33-1.95 mg%) and SiP was not correlated with either faecal or grass P. Mean faecal and grass calcium (Ca) concentrations followed a similar pattern to P. There was also a positive correlation (r2 = 0.95) between grass and faecal Ca concentrations. Faecal:grass Ca ratios indicated a conservation of Ca by reducing faecal Ca when dietary Ca was low. Animals were better able to conserve dietary Ca by reducing losses in the faeces than they were P, based on a higher faecal:grass P ratio (1.56) compared with Ca (1.18). Magnesium (Mg) was lost through the faeces during times of high dietary Mg concentrations but was conserved when grass Mg was low.     

Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XXII. Ixodid ticks on domestic dogs and on wild carnivores

Ixodid ticks were collected from 4 dogs on smallholdings near Grahamstown, eastern Cape Province, on 1 or more occasions each week for periods ranging from 9-36 months. Fourteen tick species were recovered and the seasonal abundance of adult Haemaphysalis leachi and adult Rhipicephalus simus was determined. Complete collections of ticks were made from 50 caracals (Felis caracal) in the Cradock, Graaff-Reinet and Southwell regions in the eastern Cape Province. The animals from Cradock and Graaff-Reinet harboured 13 ixodid tick species. The caracals from Southwell were infested with 11 tick species and the seasonal abundance of Ixodes pilosus on these animals was determined. A small-spotted genet (Genetta genetta), 1 bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis), 1 aardwolf (Proteles cristatus) and 6 black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) from various localities in the eastern Cape Province were examined for ticks and 9 species were collected. Complete tick collections were made from a side-striped jackal (Canis adustus), 2 wild dogs (Lycaon pictus), a spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta), a several (Felis serval), 2 African civets (Civettictis civetta), 2 leopards (Panthera pardus) and a lion (Panthera leo) in the Kruger National Park in the north-eastern Transvaal. Twelve ixodid tick specis were recovered from these animals.     

Occurrence and diversity of coccidia in indigenous, Saanen and crossbred goats in South Africa

Occurrence and diversity of Eimeria species in two groups of indigenous South African goats kept under traditional management systems, as well as in a mixed herd of Saanen, indigenous and crossbred goats kept under an intensive management system were examined. Infection rates ranged from 88.7 to 100% in the various groups. Mean OPG of immature goats (< 1 year old) exceeded that of adult goats at all three sites. There was no consistent difference between adult OPG counts at the three sites. Under the intensive system, adult crossbred goats had significantly higher OPG counts than adult Saanen or indigenous goats. Overall, OPG counts of immature goats were significantly higher during the dry season (winter) than during the wet season (summer). Ten Eimeria species were identified, Eimeria arloingi being the most prevalent species at all three sites, followed by Eimeria hirci. Up to seven Eimeria species were recovered from individual specimens.     

Use of herbal remedies by small-scale farmers to treat livestock diseases in Central Eastern Cape Province, South Africa

The use of herbal remedies by African farmers in the treatment of livestock diseases was investigated using a range of methods, including group interviews, structured interviews, semi-structured interviews and participant observation. The study was concerned mainly with the 'why' and 'how' of herbal remedy use among African livestock holders farming on communally-owned land in central Eastern Cape Province. We found that the use of herbal remedies was still widespread because these remedies were cheap, locally available and convenient to administer. Farmers also used herbal remedies because they did not have knowledge of conventional remedies or found these too expensive and therefore used herbal remedies as a last resort. Most of the farmers interviewed (73%) had used some form of herbal remedy. A small number of farmers did not use herbal remedies at all. They rejected them because they had bad experiences in the past or because they considered the practice outdated and socially inferior. Often farmers used herbal remedies in combination with conventional ones, but a substantial number relied on herbal remedies only. Farmers obtained herbal remedies principally by preparing their own or by purchasing from herbalists. Different plant parts were used to prepare herbal remedies in the form of infusions, decoctions, powders, pastes, and juices from fresh plant material. Preparations were made from a single plant or from a range of plants. Application of a remedy was by different routes and methods, depending on the perceived cause of the disease condition. Topical applications were used for skin conditions, powders were rubbed into incisions, drenches were common in the treatment of systemic conditions, and drops to treat ears and eyes. We identified several aspects of herbal remedy utilisation that could be subject to improvement, which included the absence of standard dose regimes, the potential toxicity of certain compounds present in plants used, over-exploitation of the plant resource and a lack of interest by the youth to learn the art.     

A primary animal health care approach to treatment and control of flea (Ctenocephalides felis) infestation in indigenous goats kept on communal grazing

This paper describes a primary health care approach to an infestation of indigenous goats by the common cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis. The flea species was identified using scanning electron microscopy. The infested goats were kept on communal grazing at Winterveld in the North-West Province. They were penned at night in housing made of wire and corrugated iron. The owner complained that the goats were lethargic. Fleas were found on the goats and flea larvae were found in the kraal. Haematology and blood biochemistry performed on the infested goats revealed no abnormalities; however, infestation caused irritation that made the animals lethargic. Available flea control methods for domestic animals were appraised in terms of cost, availability and ease of administration at a primary animal health care level using participatory extension methods. It was found that a carbamate powder was available, affordable and effective for flea control in this small flock of goats kept under communal grazing conditions. Although the authors had observed fleas on goats kept under similar conditions elsewhere in Mpumalanga and the North-West Province, this was the 1st time that the species had been identified.     

Parasites of domestic and wild animals in South Africa. XXXVIII. Ixodid ticks collected from 23 wild carnivore species

Ixodid ticks were collected from 104 wild carnivores belonging to 23 species in various nature reserves and on several farms in all nine provinces of South Africa. Seven feral cats in a nature reserve were also examined. Twenty-four tick species belonging to seven genera were recovered and identified. Amongst these ticks we consider the adults of Haemaphysalis leachi, Haemaphysalis spinulosa, Haemaphysalis zumpti, Ixodes rubicundus, Rhipicentor nuttalli, Rhipicephalus simus and Rhipicephalus turanicus to be true parasites of wild carnivores. Although numerous adult Rhipicephalus appendiculatus and Rhipicephalus zambeziensis were collected from some lions these were either sick or old animals. The immature stages of seven species regularly utilized wild carnivores as hosts on an opportunistic basis.     

A study of some infectious causes of reproductive disorders in cattle owned by resource-poor farmers in Gauteng Province, South Africa

Two hundred and thirty-nine cattle from Gauteng Province in South Africa were tested for various pathogens causing reproductive diseases includingbovine viral diarrhoea/mucosal disease (BVD/MD) virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IBR/IPV) virus, Neospora caninum and Brucella abortus usingvarious tests. For BVD/MD virus, 49.37% tested positive, 74.47% for IBR/IPV virus, 8.96% for Neospora caninum and 3.8% for Brucella abortus. The result for Brucella abortus is higher than the national average, possibly due to the small sample size. A high seroprevalence of antibodies to both BVD/MD virus and IBR/IPV virus was evident. These 2 viruses should be considered, in addition to Brucella abortus, when trying to establish causes of abortion in cattle. The clinical significance of Neospora caninum as a cause of abortion in Gauteng needs further investigation. One hundred and forty-three bulls were tested for Campylobacter fetus and Trichomonas fetus, and a low prevalence of 1.4% and 2.1% respectively was found in this study. The clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Institutions and governance of communal rangelands in South Africa

The creation of local institutions with a mandate over land access and control is seen as a prerequisite for successful decentralisation of land tenure and effective local resource management in sub-Saharan Africa. However, with land tenure reform in South Africa currently at a state of legislative impasse, real uncertainty now exists over land rights and governance of rangeland in many communal areas. This paper draws on case study material from Eastern Cape province to illustrate how this ongoing uncertainty has resulted in the operation of a range of traditional authority and civil society institutions in different communal areas with varying degrees of legitimate authority over land administration and highly variable performance in managing rangeland resources. Collective management of rangeland resources seems most difficult in environments where land rights are contested because of the coexistence of traditional leaders and civil society institutions. On this basis an approach to tenure reform is advocated, which vests all powers over local land administration in democratically elected and accountable civil society institutions. Some successful examples of this already exist and might serve to guide policy formation, which must be flexible enough to accommodate collective management approaches that emphasise cooperation both within and between communities.     

Adaptive management for complex communal rangelands in South Africa

Many of the intransigent problems facing the world arise in complex systems. In this paper, I propose that communal rangelands in South Africa be recognised as complex social–ecological systems and that one of the reasons that development initiatives have had little impact on improving livelihoods and rangeland condition is that interventions have been based on reductionist thinking that has failed to recognise non-linearities and uncertainties in the system. This complexity resides in ecological, social and economic components of the system, and is characterised by dynamics operating at different scales within and beyond the boundaries of the rangelands. People and the environment are vulnerable to change in these systems from factors such as changing climate, economics, governance arrangements, as well as disasters. Policy that promotes adaptability and resilience, and is itself responsive to changing dynamics, should be sought. Complex systems modelling with an inclusive group of stakeholders holds potential for realising such policy.     

Parasitic helminths of veterinary importance in cattle,sheep and goats on communal farms in the northeastern Free State,South Africa

The purpose of the study was to record and determine intensities, seasonal incidence and distribution of helminth parasites of veterinary importance that occur in cattle, sheep and goats in the northeastern Free State. The study was conducted at Harrismith and Kestell and in Qwa-Qwa from March 2000 to May 2001. Cattle of various breeds (including Bonsmara, Simmentaler and Friesian), Merino sheep and Angora goats were sampled. Faecal samples were analysed using the McMaster and Visser sieve techniques for egg counts and faecal cultures for 3rd-stage nematode larvae identification. Haemonchus and Oesophagostomum were the dominant nematode genera found to be infecting the animals. The socioeconomic status of the farmers in the study area was determined through a questionnaire survey aimed at recording their management strategies. It indicated that 81% of farmers take care of their livestock by feeding them with supplements. The low to moderate faecal egg counts from cattle showed that helminth infections in this region are still under control even though helminthosis seems to be a problem in small-stock, since EPG counts of more than > 1000 were found. Cattle farmers in this region are encouraged to continue with good animal husbandry practices that have ensured that helminth infections rates are kept low. Small-stock farmers are, however, encouraged to control helminth infections in their sheep and goats by anthelmintic treatment.