Ultrasonographic examination of the caudal structures of the distal antebrachium in the horse

Evaluation of the caudal distal antebrachium using ultrasound is a very useful diagnostic procedure for identification of soft tissue abnormalities in flexor structures of the equine limb. In this article we describe how ultrasonographic imaging may be used to complement radiography of the carpus in evaluating horses that present with peri‐carpal swelling and/or lameness localised to the carpal region. Ultrasonographic examination assists with the identification or exclusion of significant injuries to muscular, tendonous and ligamentous structures within the distal antebrachium and enables practitioners to proceed with appropriate therapeutic and rehabilitation plans for the immediate benefit for their patients while also recognising pathology that could progress to cause long‐term, chronic lameness issues without aggressive and effective intervention.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal joint of the horse

Ultrasonographic examination of the dorsal aspect of the distal interphalangeal joint is part of the routine examination of the foot structures. The purpose of this paper is to describe the ultrasonographic anatomy of the area, and normal transverse and longitudinal images. Clinical cases are presented to illustrate abnormal findings and lesions of the dorsal aspect of the joint. Ultrasonography can complement radiography for the diagnosis and documentation of many soft tissue and joint abnormalities such as synovitis, fluid distension, cartilaginous defects, periarticular osteophytes and bone fragments.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the distal podotrochlear apparatus of the horse: A transcuneal approach

In the diagnostic work‐up of lameness originating from the foot, ultrasonographic examination is an essential complement to radiography for the detection of soft tissue lesions of the podotrochlear apparatus (PTA). The infrasesamoidean part of the deep digital flexor tendon, distal sesamoidean ligament and distal sesamoid bone can be accurately assessed using a transcuneal approach. This paper describes the ultrasonographic technique and presents normal and abnormal ultrasound images of the infrasesamoidean part of the PTA.     

Ultrasonographic investigation of the atlanto-occipital articulation in the horse

The purpose of this study was to evaluate ultrasonographic imaging as a means of easy and noninvasive diagnosis of articular and periarticular structures of the atlanto-occipital articulation in the horse; and to find a safe approach to the atlanto-occipital joint. Ultrasonographic investigations were performed on 6 healthy horses and 16 specimens from horses humanely destroyed age 2-17 years (mean 9.56 years). Preliminary examinations included anatomical studies and preparation of cross-sections. On 4 horse specimens, puncture of the atlanto-occipital joint under ultrasonographic guidance was performed and a new lateral approach undertaken. For ultrasonographic investigations, the neck was divided into 4 zones according to anatomical and clinical modalities: 1) insertion of the funiculus nuchae; 2) tuberculum dorsale of the atlas; 3) atlanto-occipital joint and 4) region above the foramen alare. Each zone was examined in transverse and longitudinal planes proceeding from cranial to caudal. Ultrasonography was found to be useful for soft tissue imaging of this region and was performed down to the atlanto-occipital joint of which the joint surfaces, joint capsule and collateral ligament could be delineated in both planes. We conclude that ultrasonography of the neck is a useful technique, representing an easy to use and safe method. However, further studies are indicated which should be performed on live subjects.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the carpal region in cattle--normal appearance

The carpal region was examined ultrasonographically in 18 healthy cattle (14 cows, 4 bull calves) and five bovine cadavers in order to determine the normal appearance of the carpal soft tissues using 7.5 MHz linear transducers.The course of the echogenic flexor and extensor tendons over the carpus and the joint spaces interposed between the articular bone surfaces were successfully imaged in all carpi. The palmar vessels were easily visualized in live animals. The lumina of carpal tendon sheaths and the boundaries of the carpal joint pouches could not be defined. Small anechoic fluid filled areas were visualized only at the level of the joint spaces. After experimental filling, the distended synovial cavities were imaged as well demarcated anechoic areas. The cross-sectional diameters of the extensor tendons, width of the palmar joint pouches and intraluminal diameters of the palmar vessels were measured.The results presented serve as reference data for ultrasonographic investigation of disorders of the bovine carpus.     

Ultrasonographic anatomy of the bovine eye.

The purposes of the study were to describe the ultrasonographic appearance and measurements of the normal bovine eye, to compare the measurements to those reported previously for cadaveric eyes and to describe differences between ocular dimensions of Holstein Friesian and Jersey cattle. Sixty transpalpebral ocular ultrasonographic examinations were performed on 30 adult Holstein Friesian cows, and 16 examinations were performed on 8 adult Jersey cows. Transpalpebral ultrasonographic images were obtained with a 10 MHz linear transducer in both horizontal and vertical imaging planes. The ultrasonographic appearance of structures within the bovine eye is similar to that in other species, although the ciliary artery was frequently identified, appearing as a 0.33 +/- 0.04 cm diameter hypoechoic area. The axial length of the globe was significantly greater in Holstein Friesian cattle (3.46 +/- 0.09 cm) compared with Jersey cattle (3.27 +/- 0.19 cm; P = 0.001), although the vitreous depth was smaller in Holstein Friesian cattle (1.46 +/- 0.09 cm) (P = 0.0009). The anterioposterior depth of the lens was significantly greater in Jersey cattle (1.92 +/- 0.11 cm) and the cornea was thinner in Jersey cattle (0.17 +/- 0.02 cm). The appearance and ocular distances for live animals were similar to those reported previously for cadaveric specimens. The knowledge of normal ocular dimensions facilitates the use of ultrasonography in the evaluation of ocular disease in cattle.     

Fractures of the distal phalanx in the horse

Fractures of the distal phalanx are an important cause of lameness referrable to the foot. Depending on the fracture configuration and articular involvement, conservative or surgical treatment may be required. Fractures of the distal phalanx have been divided into six categories based on fracture configuration. Discussion of clinical features, management, and prognosis for horses with distal phalangeal fractures is presented for each fracture type.     

Ultrasonographic evaluation of fetlock annular ligament constriction in the horse

The diagnosis of restriction of free movement of the flexor tendons through the fetlock canal usually rests on the characteristic clinical appearance of this condition, or airtendography. In a series of seven normal Warmblood horses and 16 diseased horses of various breeds, the efficacy of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of this condition was determined. In normal limbs, the annular ligament is a very thin structure usually not visible on sonograms. In diseased limbs, ultrasonography outlined flexor tendon injury, distension and thickening of the digital sheath, peritendovaginal tissue proliferation and thickening of the annular ligament. Four different types of constriction syndrome were noticed. The first type (nine cases), was characterised by thickening of the annular ligament and distension of the digital sheath; the second type (three cases) was dominated by distension of the digital sheath; the third type (three cases) was characterised by superficial digital flexor tendon injury and thickening of the annular ligament and in the fourth type (one case), the constriction resulted from distension of the digital sheath and extensive peritendovaginal tissue proliferation.     

Ultrasonographic appearance of the coelomic cavity in healthy green iguanas

OBJECTIVE: To describe the ultrasonographic appearance of the coelomic cavity in healthy green iguanas. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. ANIMALS: 26 healthy green iguanas (20 males and 6 females). PROCEDURES: For coelomic ultrasonography, animals were physically restrained in dorsal recumbency by an assistant; chemical restraint was not used. Qualitative and quantitative observations were recorded. RESULTS: Structures that could be visualized in all animals included the heart and cardiac chambers; liver; caudal vena cava; hepatic veins; portal vein; gallbladder; pyloric portion of the stomach; and, when distended, urinary bladder. Visualization of the kidneys was poor. The spleen could be identified in 17 animals, and the gonads could be identified in 22, but were most easily identified in males evaluated during November (ie, during the breeding season); no females were evaluated during the breeding season. Physiologic enlargement of the testes yielded an acoustic window for the spleen by displacing overlying intestine. Anechoic, free coelomic fluid was identified in 3 animals. Measurements of overall cardiac size, ventricular wall thickness, gallbladder size, thickness of the pyloric portion of the stomach, and splenic size were obtained. Only ventricular wall thickness was significantly correlated with body weight. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that ultrasonography allowed examination of most coelomic structures in green iguanas. The procedure was easily performed and was well tolerated in conscious animals.     

Ultrasonographic imaging of a keratoma in a horse.

Ultrasonography was used to confirm the tentative diagnosis of keratoma in a horse admitted for chronic progressive lameness. A definitive diagnosis of keratoma traditionally has been diagnosed by history, clinical findings, and radiographic evaluation. Confirmation of the keratoma by use of ultrasonography facilitated the formulation of a treatment plan that resolved the condition.     

Radiographic anatomy of tendon sheaths and bursae in the horse

Contrast radiography was used to determine the position, shape, relationship and capacity of a number of tendon sheaths and bursae which have clinical significance in the horse. It was possible to establish the normal range of radiographic anatomy for these structures. Some variation in the extent and form of tendon sheaths were found between individual horses and between foals and adults.     

Ultrasonographic appearance of primary gastric neoplasia in 21 dogs

The ultrasonographic findings in 21 dogs with histologically confirmed primary gastric neoplasia were reviewed. Location, shape of the gastric lesion, evidence of gastric wall thickening, wall layers affected, presence of ulceration, evidence of extension through the gastric wall and lymphadenopathy were recorded. Twelve dogs with carcinoma shared many ultrasonographic features with six dogs that had lymphoma, the majority having sessile masses that appeared to involve all layers of the gastric wall; many also had evidence of ulceration and lymphadenopathy. Signs of extension of the lesion through the serosal surface of the stomach were identified ultrasonographically only in dogs with carcinoma. In contrast, three dogs with leiomyoma or leiomyosarcoma each had a focal mass affecting the gastric antrum, and lymphadenopathy was not identified ultrasonographically in these dogs. Even without any specific patient preparation, ultrasonography enables a morphological assessment of gastric neoplasms that may prompt a tentative diagnosis of gastric neoplasia and stimulate further investigation.     

Ultrasonographic appearance of the bovine uterus during the estrous cycle

The uteri of 22 Holstein heifers were monitored during 58 interovulatory intervals by transrectal ultrasonographic imaging. The ultrasonographic appearance of the uterus was influenced by the stage of the estrous cycle. Profound changes in characteristics visualized by ultrasonography included thickness of the uterine body, ultrasonographic evidence of edema, and accumulation of intravaginal and intrauterine fluids. Scores representing intravaginal fluid, intrauterine fluid, ultrasonographic texture, and number of gray-scale zones (comprising the image of the uterus) increased before ovulation, then decreased until approximately day 3 to day 6 (ovulation = day 0). The scores for uterine shape and number of cross sections of a uterine horn in one 5-MHz field began to increase before ovulation, reached a high plateau during the period associated with maximal progesterone production, and decreased before the time associated with estrus and ovulation.     

Ultrasonographic examination of the distal limb of cattle.

Ultrasonography has proven its worth in both small animal and equine musculoskeletal work. It allows visualization of soft tissue that is not possible with anything barring magnetic resonance imaging. In bovine practice, ultrasound has been used to great effect in reproductive work and has also shown itself to be of value in the evaluation of the thorax, abdomen, and the udder. Ultrasound examination of the bovine limb is certainly feasible because of the availability of small portable and affordable equipment. The restraint necessary is dependent on the animal. Cattle, because of their size and inherent dislike of restraint, pose a challenge for ultrasonographic examination. However, if proper restraint is used, it seems possible that ultrasonography may become a helpful tool in the evaluation of soft tissue injuries. It should prove to provide valuable information that may be used to offer better advice with regard to treatment and prognosis.