Diagnostic horizons in the Russian soil classification system

The analysis of the responses of users of the substantive-genetic Russian soil classification system revealed some problems concerning the genetic (diagnostic) horizons. Applying horizons is essential since soil diagnostics are based on their identification and their combinations in soil profiles. In the recent Russian system, there are many diagnostic horizons, and their recognition is not always easy. This review is aimed at displaying the main elements and the genetic essence of the horizons, as well as the reasons to choose the diagnostic criteria and parameters for most of them. The horizons are grouped into genetic sets, and the specific properties of the horizons are emphasized, as well as the differences between the horizons and the feasibility to introduce new horizons. A rough comparison of the diagnostic horizons in the Russian and WRB systems revealed the considerable similarity of the taxa, whose definitions depend on the presence of the diagnostic horizons: these are the orders and soil reference groups, respectively.     

Correction of a large-scale soil map with the use of the new classification system of Russian soils

A large-scale soil map of one of the farms in the south of Karelia has been analyzed. This map was initially compiled in 1979 on the basis of the official Classification and Diagnostics of Soils of the Soviet Union (1977). We have corrected it with the use of the new Classification and Diagnostics of Russian Soils. Both the names of the map units and the particular delineations on the map have been changed. These changes are related to differences in the principles of soil diagnostics in the old and new classification systems and to real changes in the soil cover that have taken place after the map’s compilation. In particular, large areas of peat bogs have been drained, and the cultivated peat soils have been subjected to accelerated mineralization. Surface planing works after digging drainage channels have also changed the soil cover pattern. The revised large-scale soil map developed on the basis of the new classification system gives more adequate information about the real soil cover.     

Strengths and weaknesses of the new classification system of Russian soils

Strengths and weaknesses of the new classification system of Russian soils are discussed. It is argued that the diversity of Russian soils and the ecological conditions of their formation are incompletely represented in this system. In particular, several specific groups of soils in the south of European Russia cannot be adequately classified within the framework of the new classification system. Several important tasks have to be solved before its adoption as an official document. First, it is necessary to compile correlation tables between the soil taxa of the previous classification (1977) and the new classification (2004). Second, a key for the field diagnostics of soils within the framework of the new system has to be developed. Third, the soils that are missing in the new system have to be introduced into it.     

俄罗斯土壤学一瞥

简单介绍了俄罗斯土壤科学的现状和特点,并对其土壤学发展中的一些问题进行了探讨。     

Geographical and genetic aspects of the Red Book of Russian Soils

An overview of soil objects from different regions and of different categories that are listed in the Red Book of Russian Soils is presented. Most of these objects are soils that support the existence of rare plant and animal species; the number of reference and zonal soils is almost equal and sufficient attention has been paid to soils that are used for scientific and training purposes. Semidesert soils are represented best; less focus is given to steppe soils; podzols and podzolic soils of Siberia have been given fairly limited consideration. To describe Russian soils in their real diversity makes it necessary to include new reference (cryozems and svetlozems) and rare (granuzem and cryoaridic) soils in the Red Book.     

A new classification system of soils of Russia: Preliminary results of discussion

The first version of the profile-genetic classification system of the soils of Russia published in 1997 was discussed by soil scientists and verified in different ways. As a result, a number of changes and additions were made in the new version of 2004. Many comments concerning this version were obtained from the regional divisions of the Dokuchaev Society of Soil Scientists, as well as from specialists (papers in Eurasian Soil Science and discussion on the Internet). The authors of the classification system consider it reasonable to analyze the results of the discussion concerning both the principles and nomenclature and some groups of soils.     

Orders in the soil classification system of Russia: Taxonomic distance as a measure of their adequate identification

Taxonomic distances between pairs of soil orders in the Russian soil classification system have been calculated using a methodology suggested for calculation of taxonomic distances between the Reference Soil Groups in the international soil classification system (WRB). Basing on the data obtained, some proposals for the development of the Russian soil classification system have been formulated. Most of the orders are characterized by considerable taxonomic distances between them, and their identification in the classification system is doubtless. Small taxonomic distances are characteristic of the following pairs of orders: organo-accumulative and structural-metamorphic soils, hydrometamorphic soils and lithozems, and cryometamorphic and eluvial soils. Therefore, criteria for defining some orders, and/or profile formulas for some soil types composing the orders may be revised. The comparison of taxonomic distances between soil orders in the Russian system and between Reference Soil Groups in the international system allows us to suggest their certain similarity.     

Historical aspects of soil classification in Japan

Historical perspective of soil classification in Japan from Max Fesca's soil classification in 1882 to the “Unified Soil Classification System of Japan (2002)” was outlined, aiming at reviewing the progress in soil classification. The evolution can be divided into the following five aspects: 1) Max Fesca's soil texture survey and soil classification from the agro-geological point of view under the influence of the German school; 2) Introduction of the concept of pedology into the classification under the influence of the Russian school led by Dokchaev; 3) Brief history of the classification of Andosols which has exerted a considerable influence on soil classification worldwide; 4) Soil classifications developed through the implementation of national soil survey projects to independently evaluate land suitability for the cultivation of paddy rice, upland crops, and for forest establishment; 5) Attempts to develop a comprehensive soil classification system in order to unify soil classification systems for the above-mentioned land uses from 1963 to the present.     

Dualism of the major notions of soil classification

The dualism of notions is a common form of our perception of the world. Thus, the notion of a classification system actually includes two complementary parts: taxonomy and meronymy. Taxonomy describes the structure of taxonomic units (taxa) and their relationships, whereas meronymy deals with the structure of the archetypes and meronyms (parts of the whole) composing them and linked by associative relations. An archetype can be defined as a generalized image consisting of meronyms that can be definitely described by a set of characteristics. Each archetype in meronymy has a corresponding taxon in taxonomy. The notions of the object of classification and the particular objects (things) representing it are explained. The notions of soil objects are somewhat different and depend on the goals and kinds of classification (conceptual, physical, or imaginable). Substantive (natural) classifications that encompass the entire set of conceivable objects (entirety) can be referred to as intensional classifications. They should be distinguished from extensional classifications dealing with a particular group of objects (data) and aimed at their arrangement in a convenient way. Extensional soil classification systems are those systems that actually arrange the lists of known soils into some order according to the rules formulated by their authors.     

Inclusion of soils and soil-like bodies of urban territories into the Russian soil classification system

The results of the Internet discussion on the classification of urban soils aimed at evaluating their possible inclusion into the modern Russian soil classification system adopted by a wide range of specialists are presented. The first step was to address the urban diagnostic horizons as the basis for identifying soil types according to the rules of the Russian soil classification. New diagnostic horizons were proposed for urban soils: urbic (UR), filled compost-mineral (RAT), and filled peat (RT). The combination of these horizons with other diagnostic horizons and layers of technogenic materials correspond to different soil types. At the subtype level, the diagnostic properties (qualifiers) that may reflect both natural phenomena (gley, alkalinity) and technogenic impacts on the soils (urbistratified; phosphatic; or poorly expressed urban—ur, rat, rt) are used. Some corrections were proposed for the system of parent materials in urban environments. Urban soils formerly described in another nomenclature—urbanozems, urbiquasizems, and culturozems—are correlated with the taxa in all the trunks of the system. The proposals accepted can be used for the next updated version of the new Russian soil classification system.     

延边烟区不同土壤的根际土壤微生物生态效应研究

为揭示烤烟根际微生物数量及酶活性的变化规律,阐明烤烟-土壤-微生物之间的协同作用机理,在延边烟区采集不同土壤类型的烤烟根际土壤,研究了烤烟根际土壤微生物生态效应.结果表明:不同土壤条件下烤烟各时期根际微生物区系和微生物生理菌群数量存在着较大的差异,其中暗棕壤黏土和暗棕壤黑砂土比白浆土更适合细菌和解钾菌的生长,白浆土真菌数的变化幅度较大可能是引起烟叶质量变差的原因之一,暗棕壤黏土和暗棕壤黑砂土在烤烟生育期内放线菌数量的变化较大,明显大于白浆土;自生固氮菌在移栽后 60 天前数量均较低,60 天后急剧升高,100 天时暗棕壤黏土和暗棕壤黑砂土自生固氮菌数量显著高于白浆土;氨化菌生长的最适宜期出现的早晚顺序为:暗棕壤黏土＞暗棕壤黑砂土＞白浆土;生育期内根际土壤解磷菌数变化较大,暗棕壤黏土烟株在旺盛生长时期的解磷菌数显著高于其他 2 种类型土壤.过氧化氢酶活性的变化规律很大程度上受土壤类型的影响,而转化酶和多酚氧化酶变化受土壤类型影响较小,但两者的大小受土壤类型的影响.     

Micromorphology of diagnostic horizons in aridic soils (complementary to the new classification system of soils of Russia)

The micromorphological data on aridic soils are far from numerous; therefore, the information presented here contributes to the development of pedogenetic ideas and characterization of diagnostic horizons and genetic properties in substantive-genetic classification systems. The diversity, functioning, and resilience of aridic soils are basically determined by the properties of their topsoils, which are regarded as recent dynamic formations as opposed to subsoils that formed under a different paleoclimatic environment; topsoil properties are more important for soil classification. Each of the two upper horizons in the new system of soil classification (the light-humus and xero-humus) has the same micromorphological features in different soils; however, in a sequence of soils, some individual micromorphological properties were revealed that indicate increasing aridity. The micromorphological properties of topsoils make it possible to identify the mechanisms of certain phenomena: aeolian deposition, structural rearrangement, the dynamics of secondary carbonates, and cryptosolonetzic manifestations.     

土壤分类专家系统设计

土壤系统分类以定量化指标划分土壤类型，为土壤自动分类系统的建立提供了可能。为了模仿专家的思维过程实现土壤自动分类，该文着重研究了如何采用面向对象的方法表达专家经验规则、诊断层和诊断特性知识，在此基础上提出了土壤分类决策树的构造方式和推理方法；并从土壤系统分类专家的知识表示和推理机的构建两个方面，提出了土壤分类专家系统 (SCES)的体系结构。GIS作为管理空间信息和提供空间分析方法的平台，也被有效地集成到系统中，以实现土壤自动分类的目的。     

土壤分类专家系统设计

土壤系统分类以定量化指标划分土壤类型,为土壤自动分类系统的建立提供了可能.为了模仿专家的思维过程实现土壤自动分类,该文着重研究了如何采用面向对象的方法表达专家经验规则、诊断层和诊断特性知识,在此基础上提出了土壤分类决策树的构造方式和推理方法;并从土壤系统分类专家的知识表示和推理机的构建两个方面,提出了土壤分类专家系统 (SCES)的体系结构.GIS作为管理空间信息和提供空间分析方法的平台,也被有效地集成到系统中,以实现土壤自动分类的目的.     

Specific surface area and wetting heat of different soil types in European Russia

The surface properties (specific surface area and wetting heat) of the solid phase were estimated for the main soil types of European Russia: soddy-podzolic, alluvial, and gray forest soils; typical, leached, ordinary, and vertic chernozems; and soils of the solonetzic complex. It was found that the values of the specific surface area and wetting heat are indicative of particular features of the genetic horizon of each soil type. Changes in these soil properties under the effect of different anthropogenic impacts were studied. The bonding strength between the adsorbed water and the soil solid phase was characterized. It was shown that the water content at the potential of the first wetting film layer is close to the content of strongly bound water calculated from the wetting heat of the soils.     

浙江台州市土壤在不同分类系统中土壤类别归属的对比研究

本文简要介绍了我国的土壤分类进展，分析对比了浙江省台州市土壤在发生分类与“中国土壤系统分类（修订方案）”中的类别归属，并初步确立了浙江台州市土壤的系统分类系统。     

Ecological limits of gray forest soil erosion in central regions of the European part of Russia

This article describes a “humus“ linear modification of the Skidmore method, allowing us to calculate the tolerable limits of soil loss taking into account the current ecological requirements and economic opportunities. These limits were developed depending not only on the genetic types of soil, but also on the degree of its erodability, types of use, the structure of crop rotation, and crop capacity.     

Geographical information system techniques in land use assessment within landscape types in Eastern Poland

Agricultural land use in much of Poland is based on traditional methods in which innovation plays a small part. The recent economic changes which have swept through Poland will result in many new opportunities for farmers as new crops, new marketing techniques and new markets become available. Intensification of agricultural land (and forestry) land use can be achieved to meet the growing demand for indigenously produced foodstuffs and timber and, at the same time, allow an increase in income generation (in raw and value-added products) especially from the export market. Intensification of output must be based on sustainable and environmentally friendly methods with minimal reliance on imported fertilizers and pesticides. This paper explains how a database consisting of soil, topography, land use and vegetation data has been used to generate a series of potential land use maps for a small area (25 km²) of Eastern Poland in which different levels of management inputs have been applied. A prime objective of this work has been the development of a sustainable agroforestry system based on the assessment of the landscape's natural conditions. The system, when fully developed, should allow effective economic management of the area with depletion of the environmental resource base reduced to a minimum. The results of this study rely on the use of computer-generated maps prepared with a widely available geographical information system.     

The fertility capability soil classification system: Interpretation,applicability and modification

This paper summarizes the first five years of testing and evaluation of the Fertility Capability Soil Classification System (FCC) and presents an improved version, examples of interpretation and its applicability. FCC is a technical system for grouping soils according to the kinds of problems they present for agronomic management of their chemical and physical properties. It emphasizes quantifiable topsoil parameters as well as subsoil properties directly relevant to plant growth. FCC-classes indicate the main fertility-related soil constraints, which can be interpreted in relation to specific farming systems or land utilization types. Since its publication in 1975, the FCC has been tested, evaluated and put to use in various countries. As a result, the definitions of several modifiers have been changed and additional modifiers have been introduced. Soil maps can be interpreted and redrawn as FCC-units when the necessary data are available. Portions of the FAO/Unesco (1971, 1974, 1977) Soil Maps of the World have been converted to FCC-units with minor difficulties. The system is directly applicable to FAO's (1976) Land Evaluation Guidelines.