A participatory approach for integrating risk assessment into rural decision-making: A case study in Santa Catarina,Brazil

Incomplete information is one of the main constraints for decision-making, which are then by definition risky. In this study, formal risk concepts were introduced in decision-makers’ meetings according to local demands and following a participatory approach, as a first step towards integrating risk assessment into rural decision-making in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Semi-structured interviews and meetings were conducted with extensionists and farmers. The following information was presented and discussed: (1) the time series and frequency distribution of maize yield predictions, simulated by the GAPS computer program for 16 feasible planting dates, representing climatic risks, both within and between years; and (2) a simple economic analysis (gross margin) and income probabilities for seven land-use options over a recent five-year period, followed by an interactive exercise where probabilities of achieving user-supplied target gross margins were calculated according to participants’ actual information, using the computer program @RISK. This paper also investigates decision-makers’ attitudes towards risk, and how these were influenced by objective information. Although results from a study such as this are not definitive, considering that the effects of the information on actual decision-making require some time to become evident, it was already possible to conclude that the risk-orientated information presented according to local demands and following a participatory approach had a positive impact on decision-makers’ understanding and perceptions. This approach should be further explored to effectively integrate risk assessment into rural decision-making.     

Smallholder farmers and forestry development: A study of rural land use in Bendel,Nigeria

The supply of forest products has lagged behind the demand in Bendel State, Nigeria. This derives from unplanned growth of wood-based industries and low capital input in afforestation programmes. Another reason has to do with the general misconception that the supply of timber to wood-based industries is solely a government venture. In the face of these problems, forest regeneration efforts within the reserves could not keep pace with the rate of timber exploitation. It is on the basis of the foregoing deficiencies of wood supply that the land outside reserve boundaries forms an alternative source of timber production.The study described in this paper explored ways of integrating tree planting into the traditional farming system. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey. A sampled population of 300 rural farmers was randomly selected from 32 settlements in Bendel State.Available data indicate high prospects for wood production by the smallholder farmers. This form of land use is favoured by the land tenure system, willingness of farmers to plant trees and the long fallow periods of between 6 and 12 years. However, successful adoption of tree planting relies heavily on cost-sharing devices between government and rural farmers, virile extension services and the possibility of free crops to generate cash flow.     

Hydrological impacts of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in a case study catchment: The Arvari River, Rajasthan, India: Part 2. Catchment-scale impacts

A key question in relation to rainwater harvesting (RWH) is whether the technique increases the sustainability of irrigated agriculture. A conceptual water balance model, based on field data from the Arvari River catchment, was developed to study and understand catchment-scale trade-offs of rainwater harvesting (RWH). The model incorporates an effective representation of RWH function and impact, and works on a daily time step. Catchment spatial variability is captured through sub-basins. Within each sub-basin hydrological response units (HRUs) describe the different land use/soil combinations associated with the case study catchment, including irrigated agriculture. Sustainability indices, based on irrigated agriculture water demand, were used to compare conceptual management scenarios. The results show that as RWH area increases, it reaches a limiting capacity from where additional RWH structures do not increase the benefit to groundwater stores, but reduces stream flow. If the irrigation area is increased at the optimal level of RWH, where the sustainability indices were greatest, the resilience of the system actually decreased. Nevertheless RWH in a system increased the overall sustainability of the water resource for irrigated agriculture, compared to a system without RWH. Also RWH provided a slight buffer in the groundwater store when drought occurred. The conceptual analysis highlights the important link between irrigation area and RWH area, and the impact of RWH on the catchment water balance.     

我国农业绿色发展现状、成效及问题研究

我国农业绿色发展是实现农业可持续发展的重要路径,对于促进生态文明建设和保障人民健康具有重要意义。本文采用归纳演绎法、案例分析法等方法,探讨了我国农业绿色发展的现状、成效、问题以及创新路径。首先,从概念、发展历程、流派及各地农业绿色发展等方面,介绍了我国农业绿色发展的现状;其次,总结了政策法律体系健全、财政支持力度加大和化学品投入减少等方面的成效,分析了农业绿色发展面临的主要问题,包括地域发展不均衡、绿色农产品价格优势不显著、人才紧缺和流失以及市场体系不健全等;最后,提出完善农业绿色体系、建立农业绿色数字体系、促进互联网农业发展及推进供给侧结构性改革以促进农民合作社发展等创新路径,以期为相关政策的制定提供参考,推动我国农业绿色发展。     

A method for exploring sustainable development options at farm scale: a case study for vegetable farms in South Uruguay

The methodology presented in this paper aims at analysing whether there is room for improvement of vegetable farmers’ income in Canelón Grande (Uruguay), while reducing soil erosion and improving physical and biological soil fertility, and to gain insight in the influence of farmers’ resource availability on the opportunities for sustainable development. The (generic) approach we developed to support re-design of farming systems in this region is unique in dealing with complex temporal interactions in crop rotations and spatial heterogeneity on farms in one integrated method, while revealing trade-off between economic and environmental objectives. Rather than an arbitrary sub-set, all feasible crop rotations were generated, using a tool named ROTAT. The crop rotations were combined with a range of production techniques according to pre-defined design criteria to create a wide variety of alternative production activities at the field scale. We used process-based simulation models supplemented with empirical data and expert knowledge to quantify inputs and outputs of production activities. We developed a mixed integer linear programming model (MILP), named Farm Images, to allocate production activities to a farm with land units differing in soil quality, while maximising or minimising socio-economic and environmental objectives, subject to constraints at the farm level. Production activities comprised current practices as well as activities new to the area. We used Farm Images to design farm systems for seven existing farms in Canelón Grande with different resource availability. The farm systems designed by the model had higher family income than current systems for six of the seven farms studied. The estimated average soil erosion per ha decreased by a factor of 2–4 in the farm systems proposed compared to the current systems, while the rate of change of soil organic matter increased from negative in the current systems to +130 to +280 kg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ in the proposed farm systems. The degree to which the objectives could be achieved was strongly affected by farm resource endowment, i.e., particularly by the fraction of the area irrigated, soil quality and labour availability per ha. The study suggests that decreasing the area of vegetable crops by introducing long crop rotations with pastures and green manure during the inter-crop periods and integrating beef cattle production into the farm systems would often be a better strategy than the actual farmers’ practice.     

A study of root water uptake of crops indicated by hydrogen and oxygen stable isotopes: A case in Shanxi Province, China

Mechanisms of crop root water uptake play an important role in agricultural water management. In this study, stable isotopes were used to understand root water uptake patterns for the main crops (summer corn and cotton) in Shanxi Province, China. Precipitation, irrigation water, soil water, groundwater and stem water were sampled for stable isotopes analyses, and supported by hydrological observations. Both direct inference of hydrogen and oxygen isotopes between stem water and the soil water profile, and multiple-source mass balance assessment were applied to estimate the main depths of root water uptake of crops in different growing seasons. The results show that summer corn and cotton have different root water uptake patterns: summer corn mainly uses the shallow soil water from 0 to 20 cm layer (96-99%) in jointing stage and extending to 20-50 cm (58-85%) in flowering stage, then 0-20 cm (69-76%) again in full ripe stage. In contrast, the main depth of root water uptake of cotton gradually increases during the whole growth stage: from 0 to 20 cm (27-49%) in seedling stage, 20-50 cm (79-84%) in bud stage, 50-90 cm (30-92%) in blooming stage and >90 cm (69-92%) in boll open stage.     

基于PSR系统模型的农村生态环境质量评价及优化策略研究--以新疆于田县为例

摘要：科学客观的评价于田县农村生态环境质量状况,对于田县农村经济、社会、环境协调良性发展,以及降低农村环境污染、提升农村生态环境质量具有重要的理论和现实意义。本文基于压力、状态、响应（PSR）系统模型构建于田县农村生态环境质量评价指标体系。运用熵值法、综合指数法对于田县2013—2022年农村生态环境质量进行评价分析,并通过农村生态环境质量综合指数对其进行分等定级。研究结果表明：2013—2022年于田县农村生态环境质量综合发展水平,总体呈上升趋势,生态环境质量综合指数值由0.21上升至0.71。于田县农村生态环境质量等级从“差—一般—良好”的方向不断增级。压力系统指数,整体呈现“M”型波动变化趋势。状态系统指数,呈现先增长、后下降、再增长的波动变化趋势。响应系统指数,整体呈现上升趋势,说明于田县农村生态环境优化的相关政策、措施实施有效。未来,政府应持续加大环保治理投资力度,加强农村生态环境监管,完善农村生态补偿机制,“利益相关者”坚持绿色发展理念,积极开展农村生态环境保护宣传教育,推进农村生态环境可持续发展。     

Temporal and spatial soil water management: a case study in the Heilonggang region,PR China

Long-term over-extraction of groundwater since the 1980s in the Heilonggang region, the East Hebei Plain of North China, has led to serious environmental problems such as seawater or saline water invasion into fresh water, land subsidence, etc. The conflicts between socio-economic development, water shortage and environmental degradation have become increasingly critical. Agriculture, the largest water user in the area and requiring 84% of total water supplied, is creating an unsustainable demand. Soil water is a very important resource in the Heilonggang region as 76% of mean annual precipitation becomes soil water. Effective use of this soil water is, thus, a key for full rational utilisation of water resources in the area. A concept of temporal and spatial management of soil water (TSMSW) is proposed here as a means to ensure effective use of soil water, viz.: management of soil water in full time and possible space dimensions and readjustment of crop distribution in order to harmonise as much as possible crop water demand and soil water availability. Four aspects are included: readjusting crop structures and rotations to fit changes in soil water, increasing the soil water resources, reducing soil water evaporation and managing soil water to meet temporal and spatial crop water demand. Field experiments show that temporal and spatial management of soil water can significantly increase water use efficiency (WUE). For cotton, adopting an integration of micro-topography and plastic mulch has increased WUE from 0.49 to 0.76–0.86 kg/m³; stalk mulch with manure for winter wheat reached to 2.41 kg/m³ and straw mulch with deep furrows (micro-topography) for summer maize increased it from 2.06 to 2.34 kg/m³.     

Mutual monitoring in a tradable water rights system: A case study of Zhangye City in Northwest China

Tradable water right systems are becoming important ways to achieve distributive efficiency in water resources. In 2002, China's Ministry of Water Resources initiated a pilot project in Zhangye City in Northwest China. The project was designed to establish a new water use rights system with tradable water quotas with the hope of reallocating water resources more efficiently through market-based instruments. However, the tradable water right system is not well enforced. Based on both primary and secondary data, we find that mutual monitoring can improve the effectiveness of a water allocation and trading program. For both surface water and groundwater irrigation systems, the conditions needed to stimulate mutual monitoring include: (1) a hierarchical management system; (2) well defined water rights or quotas; (3) control of total water quotas and water sources by the upper hierarchy; and (4) an approximate balance between the water supply or pumping capacity and the water quota. We describe also the institutional requirements for stimulating mutual monitoring.     

巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成果与乡村振兴有效衔接研究——以贵州省为例

2020年贵州贫困县全部实现脱贫摘帽,摆脱千百年来的人口绝对贫困问题。紧接着推进脱贫攻坚与乡村振兴有效工作,走有贵州特色的脱贫致富道路。对贵州巩固拓展脱贫攻坚成果与乡村振兴有效衔接的现状进行深入分析,研究发现贵州脱贫攻坚取得显著性成果,如,贫困发生率降低,农村居民收入持续增长,产业扶贫成效显著,农村基础设施建设不断完善,乡村治理更加有效。但推进脱贫攻坚与乡村振兴有效衔接中存在对二者衔接机制认知不足、产业发展进程缓慢、基层人才短板突出、农村基础设施薄弱等问题,为保障脱贫攻坚与乡村振兴政策更好衔接,提出要增强脱贫攻坚与乡村振兴有效衔接的意识;加快农村产业发展,以产业振兴驱动乡村振兴;实行科学有效的人才培育和储备机制,激活农村内生动力;提升衔接进程中的农村基础设施保障水平等策略。     

大豆玉米带状复合种植农机农艺融合发展探析——以甘肃省平凉市为例

为在黄土高原丘陵沟壑区全力推广大豆玉米带状复合种植全程机械化技术,通过对平凉市大豆玉米及其机械化生产特点、大豆玉米带状复合种植情况进行分析,提出种植效益低、气候和市场影响大、机械化技术不成熟等制约平凉市大豆玉米带状复合种植发展的关键因素,从优选适宜的种植方式、加强农机农艺与机械化信息化融合发展、发挥农业机械化技术推广体系优势、提高大豆玉米带状复合种植全程机械化水平四个方面深入探析,促进农机农艺融合发力,推动大豆玉米带状复合种植大面积均衡发展。     

Assessing multi-criteria approaches with environmental, economic and social attributes, weights and procedures: A case study in the Pampas, Argentina

Soil erosion control is a major issue in agriculture. The no till system of soybean production has been widely adopted; however, soil erosion may increase due to pasture and forestry land convertion to cropland in the marginal Pampas, Argentina. The aim of this paper is to assess the conflicts and trade-off among environmental, economic and social interests by using three continuous multi-criteria approaches and a set of different weights. Different land uses, crops, pastures, forestry and soil and water conservation practices at the basin scale in the marginal Pampas were assessed. The basin (423 km²) was discretised into 176 sub-basins to focus the management strategy on 5th and 6th order streams. Minimum basic information was obtained using intensive field observations and satellite images. The basin hydrology, soil erosion, sediment delivery and vegetated filter strip models and GIS were used to quantify the technical coefficients. Thirteen decision factors and six criteria (peak run-off, annual erosion, sediment, investment, gross margin and employment) were used in the optimisation trials. Weighted goal programming, lexicographic goal programming, compromise programming and a sensitivity analysis of weights were performed. The results showed a high impact of soil and water management practices on the environmental factors and a strong conflict between environmental and economic interests. The three multi-criteria approaches also showed that it is possible to obtain a good level of goal achievement with different plans. These plans should include: soil conservation practices; crop rotation (of a 2:1 soybean-to-corn ratio); gully and channel erosion control; regulation ponds; and pasture and agro-forestry areas. This goal achievement is mainly limited by public and private investment. Sensitivity analysis of the decision-maker weights shows differences among the values achieved by the criteria and their trade-off. Thus, the weight value of each criterium should be supported by the negotiation-consensus process.     

Performance of agency-managed and farmer-managed irrigation systems: A comparative case study at Chitwan, Nepal

Management reforms are considered one of the best alternatives in increasing efficiency of the irrigation systems. Transfer of day-to-day operation and maintenance to farmers is not a new concept. However due to lags, even now it is a hot issue in developing countries and Nepal is not an exception. In this context of growing argument about the transfer of management of public irrigation systems to the Water Users' Group, this paper examines the comparative performance of farmer-managed and agency-managed irrigation systems. Khageri Irrigation System in the Chitwan district of Nepal was taken as the study site where complete management transfer has been done in 1996. The situations before and after complete transfer were compared. Intensive case studies of the selected farmers showed that equity in distribution of water and leakage had significantly improved after management transfer. Logit analysis revealed that age and education level of the household head, distance from main canal, leakage of the canal and equity in distribution are significantly related to the satisfaction level of the beneficiary farmers from FMIS compared to AMIS. However, landholding size of the respondent farmer has no significant effect. Similarly results from t-test revealed that rice productivity and overall profits from agriculture has also increased significantly due to irrigation management transfer.     

丘陵区村镇水厂取水水源地水环境特征与综合治理-以四川省乐至县为例

对乐至县石河堰型水源地和水库型水源地进行调研,在对其自然环境和水环境对比分析的基础上,对石河堰型水源地和水库型水源地的水环境治理模式进行探讨,提出了源头控制结合生态修复的综合治理模式。     

Effect of irrigation water salinity on transpiration and on leaching requirements: A case study for bell peppers

Maximization of crop yields when the salinity of irrigation water is high depends on providing plant transpiration needs and evaporative losses, as well as on maintaining minimum soil solution salinity through leaching. The effect of the amount of applied irrigation water was studied regarding transpiration, yields, and leaching fractions as a function of irrigation water salinity. Bell pepper (Capsicum annum L. vars. Celica and 7187) in protected growing environments in the Arava Valley of Israel was used as a case study crop to analyze water quantity–salinity interactions in a series of lysimeter, field and model simulation experiments. Leaching fraction was found to be highly influenced by plant feedback, as transpiration depended on root zone salinity. Increased application of saline irrigation water led to increased transpiration and yields. The higher the salinity level, the greater the relative benefit from increased leaching. The extent of leaching needed to maximize yields when irrigating with saline water may make such practice highly unsustainable.     

Productivity impacts of the system of rice intensification (SRI): A case study in West Bengal,India

The system of rice intensification (SRI) has generated considerable debate globally, particularly with regard to its potential to raise rice yields. Proponents of SRI have reported that the average rice yield with SRI is double the current average yield and can be increased to the level of three to four times. Opponents say the reported high yields are due to measurement error and that usual information expected in support of these fantastic yields is missing. The number of SRI adopters has increased in India in recent years. We evaluate the impact of adoption of SRI practices on rice yields, the economics of paddy cultivation and labour inputs based on field research conducted in Purulia, West Bengal, India. Paddy yields with SRI were higher than those under conventional paddy cultivation by 32% and net returns were higher by 67%. Labour input was reduced by 8%. SRI adoption enabled farmers consistently to enhance paddy yields, increase returns and save labour; and enhance productivity with respect to the key inputs in terms of paddy output per unit of seed, fertilizer and labour-day. SRI promises to be a significant alternative for not only raising paddy yields, but also for managing paddy based farming in resource-starved regions.     

A measure for the efficiency of water use and its determinants,a case study of small-scale irrigation schemes in North-West Province,South Africa

This paper analyses the efficiency with which water is used in small-scale irrigation schemes in North-West Province in South Africa and studies its determinants. In the study area, small-scale irrigation schemes play an important role in rural development, but the increasing pressure on water resources and the approaching introduction of water charges raise the concern for more efficient water use. With the data envelopment analysis (DEA) techniques used to compute farm-level technical efficiency measures and sub-vector efficiencies for water use, it was shown that under constant returns to scale (CRS) and variable returns to scale (VRS) specification, substantial technical inefficiencies, of 49% and 16%, respectively, exist among farmers. The sub-vector efficiencies for water proved to be even lower, indicating that if farmers became more efficient using the technology currently available, it would be possible to reallocate a fraction of the irrigation water to other water demands without threatening the role of small-scale irrigation. In a second step, Tobit regression techniques were used to examine the relationship between sub-vector efficiency for water and various farm or farmer characteristics. Farm size, landownership, fragmentation, the type of irrigation scheme, crop choice and the irrigation methods applied showed a significant impact on the sub-vector efficiency for water. Such information is valuable for extension services and policy makers since it can help to guide policies towards increased efficiency.     

Estimating the demand for irrigation water in a humid climate: A case study from the southeastern United States

The southeastern United States typically receives more than 130 cm of precipitation per year. In this region, as in others around the world, irrigation is used as a supplement to rainfall. Over the past thirty years the number of hectares under irrigation in the region has grown considerably, as has population. Policy makers are currently searching for effective tools to address water demand. This study tests the effect of water costs, crop prices and technology on the multiple crop production decision using supplemental irrigation. Results for Georgia row crop producers indicate water demand is modestly affected by water price (with elasticities between −0.01 and −0.17), but more so by crop price (with elasticities between 0.5 and 0.82). Results also suggest adoption of lower pressure irrigation systems does not necessarily lead to lower water application rates on corn, cotton, peanuts, and soybeans.     

Assessment of a groundwater quality monitoring network using vulnerability mapping and geostatistics: A case study from Heretaunga Plains, New Zealand

A groundwater monitoring network can provide quantity and quality data necessary to make informed decisions regarding the state of the environment. A properly designed monitoring system provides a representative understanding of the state of the monitored area. The selection of the optimum number of monitoring sites and their spatial distribution is a major challenge for the hydrogeologist.On the one hand, improper distribution of monitoring sites or insufficient number of sites will not provide a representative view of the state of the environment. On the other hand, if the sampled sites are too many, the information obtained is redundant and the monitoring network is costly and inefficient.A new methodology combining vulnerability mapping and geostatistics is proposed to help define the most efficient groundwater quality monitoring network on a regional scale.Vulnerability mapping identifies areas with high pollution potential, and in turn, prioritises for monitoring. A geostatistics methodology is then used to interpret the obtained data and to examine the spatial distribution of monitored parameters at different sites. The accuracy of spatial mapping reflects the effectiveness of the distribution of the monitoring sites.The methodology was applied to assess the nitrate monitoring network in the Heretaunga basin, Hawke's Bay, New Zealand. The DRASTIC approach was used to prepare a vulnerability map for the area of study, and kriging variance was used to check the spatial distribution of the sites. Based on this study, it was found that some areas with high vulnerability are not covered within the existing network indicating the number of monitoring sites and their distribution is not efficient. Some sites should be dropped and some others need to be added to the existing network.     

Water management and crop production for food security in China: A review

Food security is a high priority issue on the Chinese political agenda. China’s food security is challenged by several anthropogenic, sociopolitical and policy factors, including: population growth; urbanization and industrialization; land use changes and water scarcity; income growth and nutritional transition; and turbulence in global energy and food markets. Sustained growth in agricultural productivity and stable relations with global food suppliers are the twin anchors of food security. Shortfalls in domestic food production can take their toll on international food markets. Turbulence in global energy markets can affect food prices and supply costs, affecting food security and poverty. Policy safeguards are needed to shield food supply against such forces. China must make unremitting policy responses to address the loss of its fertile land for true progress towards the goal of national food security, by investing in infrastructure such as irrigation, drainage, storage, transport, and agricultural research and institutional reforms such as tenure security and land market liberalization. The links between water and other development-related sectors such as population, energy, food, and environment, and the interactions among them require reckoning, as they together will determine future food security and poverty reduction in China. Climate change is creating a new level of uncertainty in water governance, requiring accelerated research to avoid water-related stresses.