Hematology, blood chemistry, and bacteriology of the free-ranging Mexican beaded lizard (Heloderma horridum).

Blood samples from 16 adult, wild Mexican beaded lizards were obtained for complete blood count and serum biochemical analysis. In addition, both oral and cloacal swab samples were collected and submitted for bacteriologic culture. This is the first report of hematologic and bacterial data from free-living beaded lizards. This information will serve as baseline reference values for future health assessment studies in conservation, captive breeding, and research programs.     

Corneal lipid deposition in Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) and its relationship to serum lipids: an experimental study.

To evaluate the association between corneal lipid infiltration (corneal arcus) and dietary cholesterol in Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis), 47 wild-caught frogs were fed diets of either regular or high-cholesterol crickets containing 0.7% and 1.7% cholesterol dry matter, respectively. Serum total cholesterol and triglycerides were measured when the frogs were euthanized after 17 mo. In a subsample of frogs, serum lipoproteins were characterized using high-performance liquid chromatography. The first case of corneal lipid deposition occurred in a female frog after 13 mo on the high-cholesterol diet. In the subsequent 4 mo, 5/11 males and 11/35 females developed the disease. Four of these affected frogs were females on the regular diet. Frogs with corneal lipid deposition had elevated serum total cholesterol (27.3 +/- 19.8 mmol/L) and low-density lipoproteins (LDL, 17.8 +/- 18.9 mmol/L) compared with unaffected captive frogs (16.5 +/- 20.4 and 9.0 +/- 7.6 mmol/L, respectively). Corneal lipid deposition was more prevalent in frogs on the high-cholesterol diet, and this group had higher serum total cholesterol (34.1 +/- 15.2 mmol/L in females, 22.8 +/- 14.8 mmol/L in males) than did frogs on the diet of regular crickets (12.3 +/- 8.7 mmol/L in females, 10.4 +/- 3.1 mmol/L in males). Captive frogs on both diets had higher serum total cholesterol than did wild frogs (3.1 +/- 2.1 mmo/L in females, 5.3 +/- 2.6 mmo/L in males). This additional serum cholesterol was primarily carried on very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and LDL rather than high-density lipoproteins (HDL), as indicated by the significantly higher ratio of VLDL cholesterol and LDL cholesterol over HDL cholesterol in captive frogs compared with wild frogs. Elevation in this ratio was significantly higher in captive females than in captive males. There was no evidence that increased serum cholesterol in captive females was directly related to the process of vitellogenesis.     

笼养羚牛繁殖生物学的初步研究

对上海动物园笼养羚牛种群20 a间的繁殖记录进行了统计分析,并将笼养羚牛和野生羚牛的各项繁殖指标进行了比较分析。结果表明：笼养条件下出生的雌性和雄性羚牛个体的首次成功繁殖年龄分别为4岁和5岁;笼养条件下出生的羚牛包括26只雌性和11只雄性,雌雄性比为2.36：1;羚牛的出生主要集中在1～4月,3月出生的个体最多;笼养羚牛首次繁殖年龄和幼仔出生季节与野生羚牛不存在显著差异。上述研究结果表明,影响羚牛繁殖的因素主要包括气候、环境、温度和湿度等。     

Effects of surgical implantation of temperature dataloggers on reproduction of captive striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis).

A total of 20 (14 females, six males) captive striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) with miniature temperature dataloggers implanted free in the abdominal cavity were examined for reproductive performance and pathology because of implants. Eleven of 12 female skunks reproduced successfully 45.9+/-3.7 days after surgery to remove implanted dataloggers. The pregnancy rate of 91.7% (11/12) was much higher than other captive studies and was comparable with that of wild skunks. Eight striped skunks (six males, two females) that were euthanatized and necropsied after having implants in the abdominal cavity for 5 mo showed no apparent pathology associated with the implant. Implantation of the intraperitoneal devices did not lead to complications in abdominal tissues. Neither implant nor surgery affected reproduction. We conclude that implanted dataloggers can safely be used in physiologic studies of striped skunks or possibly other small carnivores in captive or field studies.     

A comparison of reproductive parameters of female Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) in the wild and captivity

A healthy population of captive Amur tigers might assist recovery of the wild population in Northeast China if individuals were properly prepared and considered suitable for release in the wild. We analyzed the breeding records of 68 female Amur tigers from 1995 to 2010 in the Hengdaohezi Felid Breeding Center of China and compared the reproductive parameters of this population to wild female Amur tigers. We found that the reproductive parameters of the captive population (the age of first parturition, length of gestation and litter survival rate) were not significantly different from those of wild Amur tigers. Differences in birth date and litter size between wild and captive populations may be caused by management protocols for the captive population or insufficient field data from the wild population. Reproductive parameters of females giving birth after losing a litter were similar to parameters of females that did not lose a litter, except for birth date. These results provide no indication of major problems in using captive females for a breeding program for release of cubs into the wild, but additional information is still needed to assess their suitability.     

Determination of serum biochemical reference intervals for the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Biochemical reference intervals were determined for 31 clinically healthy Iberian lynxes (Lynx pardinus) between 1 and 6 years of age. Thirteen of the lynxes were wild-caught and the other 18 were captive-reared animals. The samples were collected between November 2004 and December 2006. The influence of sex (males vs. females), age (juveniles vs. adults) and habitat condition (free-living vs. captive) on the biochemical analytes were evaluated. Serum albumin concentrations were significantly higher in females than in males, while creatine phosphokinase was higher in males. The levels of alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase were higher in juvenile lynxes, while gamma glutamyl-transferase and creatinine values were higher in adults. Lynxes captured in the wild had higher concentrations of iron, calcium, alkaline phosphatase and creatinine, but lower aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase than lynxes maintained in captivity. The results were generally comparable to commonly reported reference intervals for other lynx species, the domestic cat and other felid species.     

Plasma biochemical reference values in clinically healthy captive bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) and the effects of sex and season

Background: Bearded dragons are one of the most popular pet lizard species, and biochemical reference values are useful for health management of these reptiles. Objectives: The objectives of this study were to measure plasma biochemical values in healthy captive bearded dragons, determine reference values, and evaluate the effects of sex and season on the results. Methods: Blood samples were collected from 100 captive healthy bearded dragons in Tokyo during the summer and winter. Plasma biochemical measurements were performed using a dry‐slide automated biochemical analyzer. The data were then compared based on sex and season using 2‐way ANOVA. Results: Globulin, cholesterol, and calcium concentrations of females were higher in both summer and winter compared with the values obtained for males. Both males and females had higher uric acid concentrations in winter than in summer. When compared with males, females had a higher chloride concentration in summer and a higher total protein concentration and aspartate aminotransferase activity in winter. Potassium concentration in males was lower in winter than in summer, whereas in females cholesterol concentration was lower in winter than in summer. Conclusions: Biochemical values that differed based on sex and season in bearded dragons were similar to those in other lizards. These differences reflect physiologic differences in reproductive status in females and seasonal changes in temperature and hydration status. Plasma biochemical values established for bearded dragons in this study will be useful in the diagnostic assessment of captive animals.     

头骨形态指标鉴别水貂来源有效性的评估

人工驯养野生动物是获取野生动物产品的重要手段,但是非法盗猎的野生动物产品以人工饲养的名义进入市场,就会对野生动物的保护形成挑战。因此,准确鉴别市场上的动物产品是来自养殖场还是野外,是保护野外种群,维持养殖业正常秩序的关键。本研究以北美水貂(Neovison vison)为例,基于颧骨内侧空间(ZAS)、颧宽(ZAA和ZBA)、颅基长(BSL)、下颌长(MDL)、眶后收缩(POC)和最大面部宽度(GFB)等量度,建立了9个头骨形态计量学指标:POC/GFB、POC/BSL、POC/MDL、ZAS SQRT/BSL、ZA SSQRT/MDL、ZBA×BSL/2ZAS、ZBA×MDL/2ZAS、ZBB×BSL/2ZAS和ZBB×MDL/2ZAS。野生组(n=32,9雄23雌)和饲养组(n=45,35雄10雌)的比较表明,除POC/GFB外,所有指标对于在两组样品之间均有显著差异,整体判别正确率为73.2%—85.5%。在性别已知的情况下,雄性的整体正确率为82.4%—93.8%,雌性为41.7%—85.7%。为此,应针对不同性别、不同来源的动物建立相应的参考数据,利用似然比进行鉴别。本研究的结果不仅可用于北美水貂的鉴别,也为其他小型食肉动物的鉴别提供经验。     

Enzootic reticuloendotheliosis in the endangered Attwater's and greater prairie chickens

Reticuloendotheliosis (RE) in captive greater prairie chickens (GPC, Tympanuchus cupido pinnatus) and Attwater's prairie chickens (APC, Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) was first reported in 1998. RE is caused by avian reticuloendotheliosis virus (REV), an oncogenic and immunosuppressive retrovirus infecting multiple species of wild and domestic birds. During August 2004 through May 2006 a captive population of prairie chickens was affected simultaneously with a neoplastic condition and also avian pox, the latter being detected in 7.4% (2 of 27) of all birds submitted for histopathology. A survey for REV was conducted in order to examine its possible role in mortality observed primarily in juvenile and adult specimens of prairie chickens. The investigative procedures included postmortem examinations, histopathology, molecular detection, and virus isolation. In total, 57 Attwater's prairie chickens and two greater prairie chickens were included in the study. REV infection was diagnosed using virus isolation or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or both in 59.5% (28 of 47) of blood samples and/or tumors from suspect birds. Lymphosarcomas were detected in the tissues of 37% (10 of 27) of the birds submitted for histopathology. Such lymphosarcomas suggestive of RE represented the most frequent morphologic diagnosis on histopathology among 27 separate submissions of naturally dead prairie chickens. Overall, REV was detected or RE diagnosed in 34 of 59 prairie chickens (57.62%). The average death age of all birds diagnosed with lymphosarcomas on histopathology was 2.2 yr, ranging from <1 to 4 yr. Although deaths associated with neoplasia occurred in males and females in equal proportions based on submissions, overall more males were diagnosed as REV infected or RE affected (16 males vs. 7 females, and 11 birds of undetermined gender). Reticuloendotheliosis virus was confirmed as a significant cause of mortality in captive prairie chickens.     

中国黑叶猴圈养种群现状分析

应用种群管理软件SPARKS 1.6及PMX对中国黑叶猴圈养种群的现状进行了统计分析。截至2012年12月31日,黑叶猴谱系记录了574只个体,目前种群存活个体数量为318只,分布在34家动物园或机构中。圈养种群野外捕获个体主要来源于20世纪70-90年代,目前保持稳定状态。圈养出生个体数则一直保持上升状态,是维持黑叶猴圈养种群增长的主要来源,2012年圈养出生数量占种群总数的87.4%。种群周期增长率λ=1.042,性比M：F=1：1.04,目前种群中能够繁殖的个体共1 10只（♂48只,♀62只）,显示为一个增长的种群;黑叶猴国内圈养种群有58个建立者,基因多样性GD=96.67%,平均近亲系数F=0.0207。建议增加各机构之间的合作繁殖,避免小种群的近亲繁殖,保证黑叶猴圈养种群的自我维持和健康发展。     

Hematology in sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis Heude, 1884)

Blood samples were taken from 78 wild and 21 farmed sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) using ketamine-xylazine sedation during their excited (82 deer) and resting (17 deer) states. Red cell count (RBC), hemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) were significantly higher and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) was lower in excited deer than in resting deer. There was no significant difference in total leukocyte count (WBC) between excited and resting wild males, while a marked increase of WBC with neutrophilia was observed in excited wild females. RBC and PCV were significantly higher and MCH was lower in excited males than in excited females. In wild deer, WBC was significantly higher in females than in males, but there was no significant difference in WBC between farmed males and females. Sex differences in the hematological parameters were not observed in fawns (10 months).     

Comparative studies on detection of Chlamydophila psittaci and Chlamydophila abortus in meat turkey flocks using cell culture, ELISA, and PCR

The prevalence of chlamydia in 10 meat turkey flocks was investigated. As samples served of each moment of collection and sex of the animals 10 cloacal swabs which were taken at the age of 1, 4, 8 and 12 (females) or 16 weeks (males) and at the time of slaughter at the age of 16 or 20 weeks. Spleen samples were taken at the time of slaughter, additionally. These were pooled making 1 pool out of 5 individual samples. The cloacal and spleen pools were examined by nested PCR (nPCR), Capture-ELISA and Capture Blocking-ELISA directly as well as after isolation attempts in cell cultures. The most sensitive method to detect chlamydia, with 6 isolates proved to be the isolation by cell culture followed by detection using nPCR. Not corresponding to the results of the nPCR were 4 positive reactions found by the Capture-ELISA which could in no case be affirmed by Capture-Blocking-ELISA. The direct examination of cloacal swab pools by nPCR proved positive in only 2 cases. In contrast to this the examination of these samples by Capture-ELISA showed a high percentage of 71.9% positive results, of which only 2 cases were confirmed by nPCR and none by Capture-Blocking-ELISA. Of the 8 Chlamydia positive results in the nPCR 7 could be classified by DNA sequencing to Cp. abortus and only one to Cp. psittaci.     

Feline herpesvirus infection in a group of semi-captive cheetahs

Clinical disease caused by feline herpesvirus type-1 in wild felid species is similar to that in domestic cats. Herpesviruses are endemic in free-ranging lions in South Africa but actual clinical disease due to them has not been reported in free-ranging felids. The first reports of feline herpesvirus infection associated with clinical disease in wild felids came from Australia and the USA in 1970. Subsequent reports of clinical disease in cheetahs and other wild felid species were limited to captive animals. This report deals with clinical disease in a group of semi-captive cheetahs in which 18 animals were affected, and included 12 adult males, 4 adult females and 2 subadults. No mortalities occurred in this group, the most common clinical signs being sneezing, nasal discharge and loss of appetite.     

Quantification of Sexual Steroid Hormones in Faeces of Iberian Wolf (Canis lupus signatus): A Non‐invasive Sex Typing Method

The determination of gender in wild animals is essential for behavioural and ecological studies, and also for conservation. The objectives of this study were (i) the determination of gender in faecal samples of Iberian wolf based on the differential concentrations of sexual steroid hormones (SSH) and (ii) to analyse the profiles of SSH in males and females (considering the gender determination carried out previously) during the non‐reproductive and reproductive periods. The quantification of androgens (testosterone, T), progestin (progesterone, P) and oestrogen (oestradiol, E) was conducted by means of enzyme immunoassay. The k‐means conglomerate analysis showed that the 59 faecal samples grouped into three different conglomerates, considering SSH levels. Groups 1 and 2 showed higher levels of T than group 3. Therefore, the faecal samples included in groups 1 and 2 (17 samples) corresponded to males and those of group 3 (42 samples) to females. The levels of T + P + E and T/P were higher in the group of males than in the group of females. The results of this study also showed that levels of T in males were higher during the reproductive period than in the non‐reproductive period. However, the concentrations of P and E turned out to be higher during the non‐reproductive season. In females, the levels of the three hormones (T, P and E) were higher during the reproductive period.     

Serum chemistry comparisons between captive and free-ranging giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis)

Serum chemistry analyses were compared between captive and free-ranging giraffes (Giraffa camelopardalis) in an attempt to better understand some of the medical issues seen with captive giraffes. Illnesses, including peracute mortality, energy malnutrition, pancreatic disease, urolithiasis, hoof disease, and severe intestinal parasitism, may be related to zoo nutrition and management issues. Serum samples were collected from 20 captive giraffes at 10 United States institutions. Thirteen of the captive animal samples were collected from animals trained for blood collection; seven were banked samples obtained from a previous serum collection. These samples were compared with serum samples collected from 24 free-ranging giraffes in South Africa. Differences between captive and free-ranging giraffes, males and females, and adults and subadults were analyzed by using a 2 x 2 x 2 factorial and Fisher's least significant difference for mean separation; when necessary variables were ranked and analyzed via analysis of variance. Potassium and bilirubin concentrations and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities were different between captive and free-ranging giraffes, but all fell within normal bovid reference ranges. The average glucose concentration was significantly elevated in free-ranging giraffes (161 mg/dl) compared with captive giraffes (113 mg/dl). All giraffes in this study had glucose concentrations higher than bovine (42-75 mg/ dl) and caprine (48-76 mg/dl) reference ranges. Differences were also seen in lipase, chloride, and magnesium though these findings are likely not clinically significant. There were no differences detected between sexes. Adults had higher concentrations of potassium, total protein, globulins, and chloride and higher gamma glutamyltransferase activities, whereas subadults had higher concentrations of phosphorus. Within the captive group, nonimmobilized animals had higher concentrations of total protein and globulins. Captive giraffe diets need further investigation to determine if the differences seen in this study, especially glucose and bilirubin concentrations and ALT activities, may result in some health problems often seen in captive giraffes.     

Fluctuations in serum steroid hormone concentrations and body mass during growth and sexual maturation in captive northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus)

Northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus) have a distinct life history pattern comprising annual terrestrial breeding and oceanic migration, and the physiological changes associated with these patterns are of particular interest for understanding their environmental adaptations. However, owing to their oceanic distribution, limited information is available on the reproductive physiology of wild individuals during the immature stage and the winter migration period. This study aimed to determine the relationships among the seasonal hormone profiles, body growth, age, and pregnancy using monthly serum samples collected over 3–5 years from two male and two female captive individuals during pubescence and sexual maturation. Small increases in the serum testosterone signaled puberty in males aged 3 and 4 years. Thereafter, males showed considerable increases in testosterone during breeding seasons, indicating sexual maturity. Immature female serum progesterone was maintained at low levels, but after pubescence, females showed an increase in serum progesterone in August, the month next to the peak of delivery, followed by a decrease. In non-pregnant females, progesterone did not increase significantly until the next breeding season, but in pregnant females, they increased again from February to March and then gradually decreased. Immature males increased body mass constantly and reached puberty when their body mass exceeded 20 kg, and they showed seasonal weight fluctuations after puberty. These results provide fundamental information for determining sexual maturity and pregnancy in this species based on sex steroid hormones and body mass measurements.     

Skin disease affecting the conservation of the western swamp tortoise (Pseudemydura umbrina)

Objective To review the present position of the western swamp tortoise ( Pseudemydura umbrina ) as an endangered species and significant health issues affecting efforts to save it from extinction.
Procedure A retrospective analysis of the husbandry, hospital and pathology records of the western swamp tortoise captive breeding program at Perth Zoo.
Results In 1987 a captive breeding project was developed to prevent the extinction of the western swamp tortoise but an outbreak of a necrotising dermatitis in 1989 threatened the survival of the captive bred hatchlings. Less severe outbreaks occurred in 1990 and 1993, with isolated cases in between. Of 283 tortoises that were born in captivity or came into captivity from the wild, 37 (13.1%) were affected, comprising 37% of all males, 26% of all females and 13% of animals of unknown gender. Of the affected animals, 70% were less than 2 years of age and 29% were older. Males were 1.6 times more likely to be infected than females but this difference was not statistically significant (P = 0.27). Culture of the lesions consistently yielded unidentified Pseudomonas sp.
Conclusion Improved husbandry, such as strict maintenance of water quality and temperature conditions similar to that of the animal's natural habitat, and monitoring the health of individual tortoises have successfully controlled skin disease in the captive breeding of the western swamp tortoise.     

Naturally acquired antibodies to Bacillus anthracis protective antigen in vultures of southern Africa

Sera from 19 wild caught vultures in northern Namibia and 15 (12 wild caught and three captive bred but with minimal histories) in North West Province, South Africa, were examined by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for antibodies to the Bacillus anthracis toxin protective antigen (PA). As assessed from the baseline established with a control group of ten captive reared vultures with well-documented histories, elevated titres were found in 12 of the 19 (63%) wild caught Namibian birds as compared with none of the 15 South African ones. There was a highly significant difference between the Namibian group as a whole and the other groups (P < 0.001) and no significant difference between the South African and control groups (P > 0.05). Numbers in the Namibian group were too small to determine any significances in species-, sex- or age-related differences within the raw data showing elevated titres in four out of six Cape Vultures, Gyps coprotheres, six out of ten White-backed Vultures, Gyps africanus, and one out of three Lappet-faced Vultures, Aegypius tracheliotus, or in five of six males versus three of seven females, and ten of 15 adults versus one of four juveniles. The results are in line with the available data on the incidence of anthrax in northern Namibia and South Africa and the likely contact of the vultures tested with anthrax carcasses. It is not known whether elevated titre indicates infection per se in vultures or absorption of incompletely digested epitopes of the toxin or both. The results are discussed in relation to distances travelled by vultures as determined by new tracking techniques, how serology can reveal anthrax activity in an area and the issue of the role of vultures in transmission of anthrax.     

Hematology and clinical chemistry values of free-ranging basilisk lizards (Basiliscus plumifrons) in Costa Rica

Twenty-three lizards were captured for this study, both males and females (12 males, 10 females, 1 undetermined), with a large range in body weights (40-286 g) appeared to be healthy based on activity level, physical examinations, and body condition scores. Heparinized blood samples from 20 free-ranging basilisk lizards (Basiliscus plumifrons) in Costa Rica were used for determining complete blood cell counts, plasma, and heparinized whole blood biochemical analysis. This information will serve as baseline reference data for future health assessment studies of free-ranging and captive basilisk lizards, as well as epidemiologic, conservation, and captive-breeding studies. A point-of-care analyzer was useful for this field study, and clinical chemistry values from heparinized whole blood samples were similar to values from plasma, which indicates that separation of plasma may not be necessary to process blood samples on site in remote areas. To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of hematologic and plasma biochemical data from free-ranging B. plumnifrons.     

Comparison of various reproductive status in Sika deer (Cervus nippon) using fecal steroid analysis

The feasibility of fecal steroid analysis for pregnancy diagnosis and sex determination were tested in sika deer (Cervus nippon). Feces were collected from captive sika deer in June (non-breeding season and late-pregnancy period) and October (breeding season), and also from the rectum of 24 female sika deer (19 pregnant and 5 non-pregnant females) shot as part of programs for population control in February and March (mid-pregnancy period). In mid- and late-pregnancy periods, fecal progesterone concentrations were significantly higher in pregnant female than in male and non-pregnant female deer. In October, fecal testosterone concentrations were higher in adult male deer, and no difference was found between young males and females. These results suggest that fecal steroid analysis would be a useful means for estimating pregnancy status and for detecting adult male among wild deer.