Factors in Hard Wheat Flour Responsible for Reduced Cookie Spread

Time-lapse photography showed that, during baking, the diameter of sugar-snap cookies increased linearly then suddenly became fixed. Therefore, cookie diameter was a function of spread rate and set time. Cookies made with soft wheat flour were significantly larger in diameter (184 mm) than those made with hard wheat flour (161 mm). Cookies made with soft wheat flour set later (5.8 min) during baking than those made with hard wheat flour (5.1 min). The differences in set time within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours appeared to be affected by flour protein content. However, other factors also affected the difference in set time between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flours. Cookies made with soft wheat flour spread at a faster rate (7.8 mm/min) than those made with hard wheat flour (4.6 mm/min). The level of soluble starch in the flour appeared to cause the difference in spread rate between cookies made with hard wheat and soft wheat flour. The higher level of soluble starch in hard wheat flour (0.352 ± 0.008%) than in soft wheat flour (0.152 ± 0.030%) increased dough viscosity, thus the spread rate was slower. However, soluble starch content did not explain the differences in spread rate within cookies made with various hard wheat flours or within cookies made with various soft wheat flours.     

Quality of Flours from Waxy and Nonwaxy Barley for Production of Baked Products

One nonwaxy (covered) and two waxy (hull-less) barleys, whole grain and commercially abraded, were milled to break flour, reduction flour, and the bran fraction with a roller mill under optimized conditions. The flour yield range was 55.3–61.8% in whole grain and increased by 9–11% by abrasion before milling. Break flours contained the highest starch content (≤85.8%) independent of type of barley and abrasion level. Reduction flours contained less starch, but more protein, ash, free lipids, and total β-glucans than break flours. The bran fraction contained the highest content of ash, free lipids, protein, and total β-glucans but the lowest content of starch. Break flours milled from whole grain contained 82–91% particles <106 μm, and reduction flours contained ≈80% particles <106 μm. Abrasion significantly increased the amount of particles <38 μm in break and reduction flours in both types of barley. Viscosity of hot paste prepared with barley flour or bran at 8% concentration was strongly affected by barley type and abrasion level. In cv. Waxbar, the viscosity in bran fractions increased from 428 to 1,770 BU, and in break flours viscosity increased from 408 to 725 BU due to abrasion. Sugar snap cookies made from nonwaxy barley had larger diameter than cookies prepared from waxy barley. Cookies made from break flours were larger than those made from reduction flours, independent of type of barley. Quick bread baked from nonwaxy barley had a loaf volume similar to that of wheat bread, whereas waxy barley bread had a smaller loaf volume. Replacement of 20% of wheat flour by both waxy and nonwaxy barley flour or bran did not significantly affect the loaf volume but did decrease the hardness of quick bread crumb.     

Starch-Water Relationships in the Sugar-Snap Cookie Dough System

Prime starch was extracted from soft and hard wheat flours and ballmilled to produce 100% damaged starch. Small amounts of the ball-milled starch or a pregelatinized starch were added to sugar-snap cookie formulations. Other cookie doughs were produced from prime starch only (no flour) with small amounts of the ball-milled starch added. Starch damages of the resulting substituted soft and hard wheat flours and soft and hard wheat prime starches were determined and compared to diameters of sugarsnap cookies produced from the control and treatments. Soft wheat flour and starches produced larger diameter cookies than their hard wheat counterpart at all levels of damaged starch. Both sources of damaged starch (ball-milled or pregelatinized starch) had similar effects on cookie diameter. Cookies produced from all starch (no flour) were similar to their respective flour controls at ≈8% damaged starch. To produce the same size cookie as that produced by soft wheat flour and starch, hard wheat flour and starch cookie formulations required less damaged starch and had lower alkaline water retention than did the soft wheat flour and starch cookie formulations. Other flours were treated with chlorine gas to pH 4.8. Pregelatinized starch (≈5%) was required to reduce the cookie diameter as much as chlorine treatment did. Results suggest unique quality differences between soft and hard wheat starch as they function in sugar-snap cookie baking. The functional results of those differences are not adequately quantified by the estimation of damaged starch level.     

Effect of Pea Flours with Different Particle Sizes on Antioxidant Activity in Pan Breads

Pulses are good sources of vitamins and minerals as well as antioxidants. Current literature supports a role for antioxidants in reducing oxidative damage associated with many health disorders, including cardiovascular disease and cancer. The effects of substitution of 10% (w/w) yellow whole or split pea flour (various particle sizes) in white wheat flour (Canadian Wheat Red Spring) on the phenolic and antioxidant activity of the leavened bread were examined. Antioxidant activity was evaluated with four assays, which included 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), metal chelation (MC), and superoxide (SO) radical scavenging assays. The bread samples had reduced DPPH (5–11% scavenging activity) and MC (5–10% scavenging activity) values compared with their respective raw flours. Decreased activity in both the DPPH and MC assays can be attributed to a reduction in the antioxidant capacity in the bread samples owing to dilution with white wheat flour. The MC values for bread samples showed little variability between the yellow whole and split pea flours (8–10% scavenging activity for yellow whole and 9% for split pea flours), which suggests that the antioxidant activity of bread samples is not dramatically affected by the seed coats. Most pea fractions increased the FRAP scavenging activity and decreased the SO scavenging activity values for the bread samples compared with their respective raw flours. We conclude that thermal processing enhanced the antioxidant activity of the bread samples, limiting the dilution effect associated with flour addition during dough make‐up.     

A Rapid,High Throughput Micro Sugar‐Snap Cookie Quality Test Procedure Using Asymmetrical Centrifugal Mixing

A modified AACC 45‐g flour cookie procedure using asymmetrical centrifuge mixing as a replacement for conventional mixing has been developed. Ingredients are added to a pin cup in the same proportion as in the Approved Method 10‐50D (AACC 2000) sugar‐snap cookie test and mixed in a single step for 15 sec at 2,500 rpm. The dough is then processed and the resulting cookies are scored according to the AACC Approved Method 10–52 40‐g flour micro cookie test method. Cookies produced from a control cookie flour and four commercial soft wheat flours with the new mixing method did not show the characteristic surface cracking patterns normally obtained with conventional three‐stage mixing. However, with the exception of one spread value, no significant differences in spread, thickness, or the ratio of spread to thickness were evident when results were compared with those obtained with the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method using a Hobart mixer equipped with a paddle. Cookies produced from two sets of advanced soft white spring wheat breeder lines, including control cultivars, using the asymmetrical centrifuge mixing procedure were also very comparable in spread, thickness, and ratio compared with those produced using 225 g of flour in the AACC Approved Method. Reproducibility of test results for all cookie parameters for both commercial and advanced plant breeder samples were comparable to the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method. The very short mixing time and the ability to quickly clean or use multiple pin cups should allow very high throughput of flour samples relative to the use of conventional mixers for cookie testing.     

Antioxidant contents and antioxidative properties of traditional rye breads

The purpose of this research was to find out the effect of flour extraction rate on the antioxidative properties of traditional rye bread and then to compare the bioactive compounds content and antioxidant properties of rye breads with commercial wheat roll. Four types of rye flour with different extraction rates of 100 (whole meal dark flour), 95 (brown flour), 90 (brown flour), and 70% (light flour) originated from Warko rye cultivar were used for traditional bread baking with sourdough fermentation. Four types of the respective rye breads were analyzed for their potentially beneficial components, including tocopherols and tocotrienols, total phenolics and flavonoids, reduced glutathione, and inositol hexaphosphates. Moreover, the phenolic acids profile was provided. The Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) of the breads was evaluated using free radical scavenging activities of 80% methanol extracts against ABTS*+ radical cation (ABTS radical cation decolorization method) whereas radical scavenging activity (RSA) was determined against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH*). The superoxide dismutase-like activity (SOD-like activity) was evaluated as free radical scavenging activities of PBS extracts against superoxide anion radicals (O2*-). The results were compared to whole meal rye bread as well as to wheat roll taken as representative example of wheat based bakery product. The studies showed that flour extraction rates strongly affected the content of bioactive compounds and antioxidative properties of traditionally baked rye breads. The incorporation of the rye flours with extraction rates from 100 down to 70% in the formulation caused decrease in tocopherol (T), tocotrienol (T3), inositol hexaphosphate (IP6), and phenolic compound (TPC) contents in rye breads. No changes in reduced glutathione (GSH) contents were noted between each type of rye bread. A significant decrease in Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity and radical DDPH scavenging activity was also found in bread formulated on flour with an extraction rate of 70% in comparison to the breads formulated on flour with extraction rates from 100 to 90%. The highest SOD-like activity was noted for rye bread formulated on flour with an extraction rate of 70%. The four types of rye breads showed better antioxidative properties and higher antioxidant contents when compared to wheat roll with one exception made to tocopherols and tocotrienols.     

Comparison of Antioxidant Components and Activity of Buckwheat and Wheat Flours

Plant phenolics and tocopherols content were determined in light and wholegrain buckwheat and wheat flour. Antioxidant activity of flours were comparatively assessed by scavenging activity on 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH^•), hydroxyl (^•OH), and superoxide anion (O₂^•–) radicals, reducing activity, and chelating activity on Fe²⁺. Rutin, quercetin, and ferulic acid were quantified in both buckwheat flours, while ferulic acid was quantified in wholegrain wheat flour. Significantly higher content of phenolics and tocopherols was found in buckwheat than in wheat flours. Tocopherols in buckwheat flours were present in the order: γ‐ > α‐>> δ‐tocopherol, and in wheat flours: α‐ > γ‐ >> δ‐tocopherol. Buckwheat flours possessed better scavenging abilities on DPPH^•, ^•OH and O₂^•– radicals, as well as better reducing activity, while wheat flours showed better chelating activity on Fe²⁺, according to IC₅₀ values. Results suggest the possibility of improving the antioxidant properties of wheat‐based food products through addition of buckwheat flour.     

Natural Variation and Genome‐Wide Association Study of Antioxidants in a Diverse Sorghum Collection

Consumption of polyphenol‐rich food is associated with decreased risk of oxidative stress‐related chronic diseases. Sorghum, a major food and feed cereal crop, has many polyphenol‐containing accessions with high antioxidant activity in the grain. However, many of these polyphenol‐containing accessions are not high‐yielding or food‐grade varieties. The natural variation in sorghum grain polyphenols can be used to develop high‐yielding, health‐promoting specialty food types through marker‐assisted breeding. To identify new antioxidant‐rich germplasm, we quantified antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, and condensed tannins in whole kernel flour in 266 accessions from the genetically and phenotypically diverse Sorghum Association Panel. Antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, and condensed tannins were in the ranges of 9.6–325.1 μmol of trolox equivalents (TE)/g, 0.8–18.8 g of gallic acid equivalents/kg, and 0–65.5 g of catechin equivalents/kg, respectively. Twenty‐three accessions were rich sources of antioxidant activity, with PI534144 (SC84; 325.1 μmol of TE/g) and PI534117 (SC991; 237.0 μmol of TE/g) possessing the highest values. To identify quantitative trait loci associated with sorghum grain antioxidant traits, we conducted a genome‐wide association study with 404,628 single nucleotide polymorphism markers. Many significant associations were identified, including two homologs of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) transparent testa (TT ) genes TT10 and TT4. This study provides information that can help breeders incorporate health‐promoting traits into elite breeding lines.     

Ethanol‐Production Performance of Ozone‐Treated Tannin Grain Sorghum Flour

Ozone has been reported as being able to degrade macromolecules such as cellulose, starch, lignins, and tannins in the textile, pulping, and water‐treatment industries. Thus, we hypothesized that ozone treatment may also inactivate tannin activity and increase fermentation efficiency of tannin sorghum lines. The objective of this research was to study the physicochemical properties of ozone‐treated whole tannin grain sorghum flour and its fermentation performance in ethanol production. Results showed that the ethanol yields from ozone‐treated tannin grain sorghums were significantly higher than yields from the untreated flour. The fermentation efficiency of ozone‐treated tannin grain sorghum was approximately 90%, which was 8–14% higher than that of untreated samples at the 36th hr of fermentation. At the end of 72 hr of fermentation, the efficiencies of ozone‐treated sorghum flour were 2–5% higher than those of untreated samples. Measured tannin levels of ozone‐treated samples decreased significantly from 3.8 to 2.7%. Gel‐permeation chromatographic results indicated that both degradation and polymerization processes might have happened to starch molecules during ozone treatment. Rapid Visco Analyzer data showed that the setback of viscosity of ozone‐treated flour was lower than that of untreated flours. Distillers dried grains with solubles made from ozone‐treated sorghum were low in residual starch (<1%) and high in crude protein (≈35%). Therefore, ozonation could be a novel and useful method to improve ethanol yield and fermentation efficiency of tannin grain sorghum.     

Diversity in Phytochemical Composition and Antioxidant Capacity of Dent,Flint, and Specialty Corns

Dent, flint, and specialty genotypes of Indian yellow maize were evaluated for phytochemical content and their hydrophilic antioxidant capacity. Solid‐phase extraction coupled with solid–liquid extraction was used to obtain free phenolics and flavonoids from maize samples, reducing the use of excessive solvents and handling time. Bound phenolics were extracted with enhanced acidic hydrolysis to improve extractability. The phenolic contents in Indian maize genotypes ranged from 46 to 79 μmol of ferulic acid equivalents per gram of sample on a dry basis (db). Carotenoids in Indian maize genotypes were found to be equivalent to Chinese yellow maize and ranged from 13 to 24 μg/g of sample (db), whereas tocol content varied greatly in the range of 607–1,238 μg of α‐tocopherol equivalents/g of sample (db). Dent and flint corn did not exhibit differences (P > 0.05) in their phenolic contents, whereas among the specialty genotypes sweet corn contained the highest phenolics but least carotenoids (P < 0.05). Bound extracts appeared to contribute largely to 2,2′‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl free radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, and ferric reducing antioxidant power of maize genotypes. Sweet corn exhibited higher antioxidant capacity (P < 0.05) among all the genotypes. The antioxidant capacities correlated well with the total phenolic contents of the maize genotypes.     

Occurrence and Location of Tannins in Finger Millet Grain and Antioxidant Activity of Different Grain Types

Grain of 22 finger millet types obtained from Southern and East Africa were analyzed to determine the influence of grain type on tannins, antioxidant properties, and tannin localization in the grain. Four grain types were creamy white and 18 were brown. A high proportion (80–100%) of kernels of all but two of the pigmented types stained black with the bleach test, while the light types did not stain black. There was a wide range of total phenolics, condensed tannin content, and antioxidant activity across the grain types. Light-colored grain types had much lower total phenolics and tannins relative to the pigmented types, and types that stained black with the bleach test had much higher tannin content and much higher antioxidant activity. Light microscopy revealed that kernels that stained black with the bleach test and had high tannin content had a dark-colored testa layer, indicating that the tannins were located in that layer as in sorghum. This is the first report that the bleach test can be used to detect tannin in finger millet types. The work demonstrates that occurrence of tannins in finger millet grain is a varietal property, as in sorghum.     

Rye Flour Extraction Rate Affects Maillard Reaction Development,Antioxidant Activity,and Acrylamide Formation in Bread Crisps

This report shows the effect of rye flour extraction rate on Maillard reaction, antioxidant activity, and acrylamide formation during toasting of rye bread crisps. Four rye flours with extraction rates of 70, 85, 95, and 100% were tested. Maillard reaction development was studied by measuring browning development, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), and glucosilisomaltol (GIM) formation, as well as antioxidant activity. Results showed that HMF and GIM concentrations in toasted bread crisps were higher as the flour extraction rate increases. Antioxidant activity increased during toasting as a consequence of antioxidant Maillard reaction product formation. Acrylamide concentration was clearly affected by free asparagine content of flour, while no effect of dietary fiber and natural antioxidant content of flours had an effect on acrylamide formation. Overall data suggest that the rate of Maillard reaction is higher in whole flours because of their higher free amino acid and protein content.     

Antioxidant and antiradical activities in extracts of hazelnut kernel (Corylus avellana L.) and hazelnut green leafy cover

Phenolic compounds in the aqueous systems were extracted, from hazelnut kernel (HK) and hazelnut green leafy cover (HGLC), with 80% (v/v) ethanol (HKe and HGLCe) or 80% (v/v) acetone (HKa and HGLCa). The extracts were examined for their phenolic and condensed tannin contents and phenolic acid profiles (free and esterified fractions) as well as antioxidant and antiradical activities by total antioxidant activity (TAA), antioxidant activity in a beta-carotene-linoleate model system, scavenging of DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical, and reducing power. Significant differences (p < 0.05) in the contents of total phenolics, condensed tannins, and TAA existed among the extracts that were examined. HGLCa extract had the highest content of total phenolics (201 mg of catechin equivalents/g of extract), condensed tannins (542 mg of catechin equivalents/g of extract), and TAA (1.29 mmol of Trolox equivalents/g of extract) followed by HGLCe, HKa, and HKe extracts, respectively. Five phenolic acids (gallic acid, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and sinapic acid) were tentatively identified and quantified, among which gallic acid was the most abundant in both free and esterified forms. The order of antioxidant activity in a beta-carotene-linoleate model system, the scavenging effect on DPPH radical, and the reducing power in all extracts were in the following order: HGLCa > HGLCe > HKa > HKe. These results suggest that both 80% ethanol and acetone are capable of extracting phenolics, but 80% acetone was a more effective solvent for the extraction process. HGLC exhibited stronger antioxidant and antiradical activities than HK itself in both extracts and could potentially be considered as an inexpensive source of natural antioxidants.     

Antioxidant Capacity of Water‐Extractable Arabinoxylan from Commercial Barley,Wheat, and Wheat Fractions

The objective of this research was to analyze the antioxidant capacity directly of water‐extractable nonstarch polysaccharides (NSP) and feruloylated arabinoxylans (WEAX) following their characterization. NSP were isolated from barley, wheat, and wheat fractions (germ, bran, and aleurone). WEAX were extracted only from wheat fractions. Antioxidant capacity of NSP measured with the 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2′‐azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulfonic acid (ABTS), and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) assays was 24.0–99.0, 40.0–122.0, and 140.0–286.0μM Trolox equivalents (TE)/g, respectively. The antioxidant capacity of WEAX was 75.7–84.0, 58.0–105.0, and 110.0–235.0μM TE/g for those three assays. DPPH and ABTS were highly correlated to xylose content (R² = 0.85), degree of substitution (R² = −0.99), total phenolic acids (R² = >0.73), total phenolic content (TPC) (R² = >0.78), and ferulic acid content (R² = >0.86). ORAC was only influenced by TPC (R² = 0.63). By taking yield and antioxidant capacity into account, NSP would provide about 0.4–4.2, 0.6–5.1, and 2.8–12.0μM TE/g of flour of radical scavenging activity as measured by DPPH, ABTS, and ORAC, respectively, compared with WEAX (0.4–1.0, 0.3–1.3, and 0.6–2.8μM TE/g). Our results suggest that NSP or WEAX may play a role in protection against free radicals in a food matrix and likely in the gastrointestinal tract.     

Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Activity of Pearled Wheat and Roller‐Milled Fractions

Wheat contains phenolic compounds concentrated mainly in bran tissues. This study examined the distribution of phenolics and antioxidant activities in wheat fractions derived from pearling and roller milling. Debranning (pearling) of wheat before milling is becoming increasingly accepted by the milling industry as a means of improving wheat rollermilling performance, making it of interest to determine the concentration of ferulic acid at various degrees of pearling. Eight cultivar samples were used, including five genotypes representing four commercial Canadian wheat classes with different intrinsic qualities. Wheat was pearled incrementally to obtain five fractions, each representing an amount of product equivalent to 5% of initial sample weight. Wheat was also roller milled without debranning. Total phenolic content of fractions was determined using the modified Folin‐Ciocalteau method for all pearling fractions, and for bran, shorts, bran flour, and first middlings flour from roller milling. Antioxidant activity was determined on phenolic extracts by a method involving the use of the free radical 2,2‐diphenyl‐l‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Total phenolics were concentrated in fractions from the first and second pearlings (>4,000 mg/kg). Wheat fractions from the third and fourth pearlings still contained high phenolic content (>3,000 mg/kg). A similar trend was observed in antioxidant activity of the milled fractions with ≈4,000 mg/kg in bran and shorts, ≈3,000 mg/kg in bran flour, and <1,000 mg/kg in first middlings flour. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were highly correlated (R² = 0.94). There were no significant differences between red and white wheat samples. A strong influence of environment (growing location) was indicated. Pearling represents an effective technique to obtain wheat bran fractions enriched in phenolics and antioxidants, thereby maximizing health benefits associated with wheat‐based products.     

Effects of Brans from Specialty Sorghum Varieties on In Vitro Starch Digestibility of Soft and Hard Sorghum Endosperm Porridges

Brans of specialty sorghum varieties (high tannin, black, and black with tannin) were used to investigate the effects of sorghum phenolic compounds on starch digestibility of soft and hard sorghum endosperm porridges. Endosperms of varieties with the highest and lowest grain hardness index were mixed with brans of specialty sorghum varieties in the ratio of 85:15 and cooked into porridges with distilled water using a Rapid Visco Analyzer. Brans of condensed tannin containing sorghum varieties (high‐tannin and black with tannin sorghums) significantly (P < 0.05) decreased starch digestibility and estimated glycemic index (EGI) and increased resistant starch (RS) content of endosperm porridges. However, the addition of phenolic‐rich tannin‐free (mostly anthocyanins) black sorghum bran significantly (P < 0.05) increased starch digestibility and EGI but did not affect RS content of endosperm porridges. The disparate effects with black bran may, in part, result from its larger particle size and different bran structure compared with other sorghum varieties evaluated. Thus, our study showed that not only presence of phenolic compounds in the brans but also structural differences of specialty sorghum brans can have significant effects on starch digestibility.     

Phytochemical composition, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative activity of whole wheat flour

Whole wheat flour from five wheat cultivars was evaluated for phenolic, carotenoid, and tocopherol compositions as well as anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative activities against HT-29 cells. The total ferulic acid content ranged from 452 to 731 μg/g among the five cultivars and was primarily present in the insoluble-bound form. Lutein was the only carotenoid detected and ranged from 1.5 to 4.0 μg/g, and α-tocopherol levels ranged from 12 to 61 μg/g. Extracts of four cultivars demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory activity, measured as inhibition of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) mRNA expression; however, none of the extracts inhibited tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) mRNA expression, a second indicator of anti-inflammatory activity. Proliferation of HT-29 adenocarcinoma cells was inhibited by extracts from all cultivars at the dose of 100 mg botanical equivalent/mL. The cultivar WestBred 936 had the greatest antiproliferative activity at lower concentrations (20 and 50 mg botanical equivalent/mL), had the greatest anti-inflammatory effect against IL-1β, and also had the highest levels of ferulic acid and α-tocopherol. This research shows that whole wheat flours of these five cultivars varied significantly in their contents of phenolics, carotenoids, and α-tocopherol as well as in their anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative potentials, suggesting the possibility that wheat varieties can be selected based on potential health benefits.     

Malted Sorghum as a Functional Ingredient in Composite Bread

To alleviate the adverse effects (grittiness and high crumb firmness) caused by the inclusion of sorghum flour in composite breads, sorghum grain was malted with the aim of decreasing the gelatinization temperature and increasing the water‐holding capacity of sorghum flour. Four different heat treatments were investigated: drying the malt at high temperatures (50–150°C), stewing, steaming, and boiling before drying the malt at 80°C. Malting decreased the pasting temperature of sorghum to values approaching those of wheat flour, but the paste viscosity was very low. Increasing the malt drying temperature inactivated the amylases but gave malts of darker color and bitter taste. Stewing, steaming, and boiling the malt before drying almost completely inactivated the amylases and increased the enzyme‐susceptible starch content and the paste viscosity of malt flours. Bread made with boiled malt flour (30%) had an improved crumb structure, crumb softness, water‐holding capacity, and resistance to staling, as well as a fine malt flavor compared with the bread made with grain sorghum flour (30%). Consumers preferred the malted sorghum bread over the bread made with plain sorghum flour.     

Influence of Jet‐Cooking Prowashonupana Barley Flour on Phenolic Composition,Antioxidant Activities,and Viscoelastic Properties

The objective was to study the influence of jet‐cooked Prowashonupana barley flour on total phenolic contents, antioxidant activities, water‐holding capacities, and viscoelastic properties. Barley flour was jet‐cooked without or with pH adjustment at 7, 9, or 11. Generally, the free phenolic content and antioxidant activity decreased after jet‐cooking, while the bound phenolic content and antioxidant significantly increased regardless of pH. Detectable levels of gallic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and p‐coumaroyl‐pentose in the jet‐cooked barley flour hydrolysates along with vitexin were found among 21 phenolics by LC‐ESI‐Q‐TOF‐MS analysis. Jet‐cooking at an elevated pH resulted in increased pasting viscosities. The oil content was decreased after jet‐cooking and continued to decrease with increased pH values. Jet cooking dramatically increased water holding capacity from 179% for unprocessed flour to 643% for jet‐cooked flour without pH adjustment, and water‐holding capacity was greatly increased to 914% by jet‐cooking at pH 11. The combination of jet‐cooking and pH adjustment had tremendous influence on water‐holding and pasting properties. This increase in functionality should contribute to food applications such as bakery and frozen products because of the release of the bound phenolic content, antioxidant activities, and improved water‐holding and pasting abilities.     

Simple Phenolic Acids in Flours Prepared from Canadian Wheat: Relationship to Ash Content,Color, and Polyphenol Oxidase Activity

Simple phenolic acid levels were determined on pooled millstreams of five different classes of Canadian wheat milled to ~75, 80, and 85% extraction. Pooled flours and whole grain were analyzed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) to establish endogenous levels of insoluble bound, soluble esterified, and free phenolic acids. Only ferulic acid was detected in the insoluble bound category, which accounted for >80% of the total phenolic acids present in every flour. The soluble esterified phenolic acids accounted for up to 17% of the overall total phenolic acid content within a flour. The major constituents were sinapic, ferulic, and vanillic acids, with minor amounts of coumaric, caffeic, and syringic acids. Free phenolic acids accounted for a maximum of 6% of the total phenolic content of any prepared flour. Ferulic acid was the major free phenolic acid, while sinapic acid was not detected in any flour. Significant correlations (r = 0.64–0.97, P < 0.05) were observed between insoluble bound ferulic acid, individual soluble esterified acids, and most free acids with polyphenol oxidase activity, as well as color and ash content for each class.