Understanding Consumer Preference for Functional Barley Tortillas Through Sensory,Demographic, and Behavioral Data

Consumption of whole grains as part of a health‐promoting diet is encouraged among Americans due to beneficial nutrients and phytochemicals. The main objectives of this study were to investigate the effect of whole barley flour particle size on consumer acceptance of whole grain and soluble fiber‐enriched tortillas; to examine the effect of demographic and behavioral data on consumer acceptance; and to establish relationships between consumer acceptance and survey results to identify market opportunities among particular groups of consumers. Four experimental tortillas and two representative commercial brands were tested by 95 untrained panelists using a 9‐point hedonic scale for appearance, color, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability. Demographic and behavioral data on age, gender, ethnicity, frequency of tortilla consumption, daily effort to include fiber in the diet, consumption of tortillas containing ≥1 g of dietary fiber/serving, consumption of low‐fat tortillas, and tortilla brands and type used were collected. Potential market segments for these tortillas include older consumers (41+), women, Hispanics, and Asians, and frequent tortilla consumers. A response surface relating flavor and texture to overall acceptability produced almost equivalent results to the multivariate PLS results in terms of predicting overall acceptability, which facilitates analysis and interpretation.     

Effect of Cross‐Linked Resistant Starch on Wheat Tortilla Quality

Resistant starch (RS) ingredients are an attractive option to increase dietary fiber in baked products. This study determined the effect of two forms of cross‐linked and pregelatinized cross‐linked RS, Fibersym‐RW (Fsym) or FiberRite‐RW (FRite), respectively, from wheat on dough and tortilla quality and acceptability. Refined wheat tortillas with 0% (control) to 15% RS (flour basis) were made using a standard baking process. Tortillas with 100% whole white wheat were also made. Physical and rheological properties of dough and tortillas, and sensory profile of tortillas were evaluated. Dough with whole wheat and 15% FRite were significantly harder and less extensible than the control dough; this was related to high water absorption of these doughs. Tortillas with whole wheat and 10–15% FRite were less puffed and denser than the control; however these levels of FRite significantly increased tortilla weight (by up to 6.2%). Dough and tortillas with Fsym were comparable to the control. Dietary fiber (g/100 g, db) increased from 2.8 ± 0.3 in control to 14.3 ± 0.5 and 13.6 ± 0.5 in 15% Fsym and 15% FRite tortillas, respectively. Tortillas with whole wheat were less acceptable than the control in appearance, flavor, and texture, while tortillas with 15% Fsym had higher overall acceptability than the control. Incorporation of 15% cross‐linked wheat RS to increase tortilla dietary fiber is feasible without negatively affecting dough handling and tortilla quality.     

Physical and Sensory Properties of Regular and Reduced‐Fat Pound Cakes with Added Amaranth Flour

The sum of wheat flour and corn starch was replaced by 10, 20, or 30% whole amaranth flour in both conventional (C) and reduced fat (RF) pound cakes, and the effects on physical and sensory properties of the cakes were investigated. RF presented 33% fat reduction. The increasing amaranth levels darkened crust and crumb of cakes, which decreased color acceptability. Fresh amaranth‐containing cakes had similar texture characteristics to the controls, evaluated both instrumentally and sensorially. Sensory evaluation revealed that replacement by 30% amaranth flour decreased C cakes overall acceptability scores, due to its lower specific volume and darker color. Amaranth flour levels had no significant effect on overall acceptability of RF cakes. Hence, the sum of wheat flour and corn starch could be successfully replaced by up to 20% amaranth flour in C and up to 30% in RF pound cakes without negatively affecting sensory quality in fresh cakes. Moisture losses for all the cakes were similar, ≈1% per day during storage. After six days of storage, both C and RF amaranth‐containing cakes had higher hardness and chewiness values than control cakes. Further experiments involving sensory evaluation during storage are necessary to determine the exact limit of amaranth flour replacement.     

Particle Size Effects on the Quality of Flour Tortillas Enriched with Whole Grain Waxy Barley

Wheat tortillas were enriched with whole barley flour (WBF) of different particle sizes including 237 μm (regular [R]), 131 μm (intermediate [IM]), and 68 μm (microground [MG]). Topographical and fluorescent microstructure images of flours, doughs, and tortillas were examined. Flours and tortillas were analyzed for color, protein, ash, starch, moisture, and β‐glucan content. Farinograph testing was conducted on the flour blends. Water activity and texture analyses of tortillas were conducted. A 9‐point hedonic scale was used by 95 untrained panelists to evaluate tortilla appearance, color, flavor, texture, and overall acceptability. Two commercial products (CP) were included in some analyses. As WBF particle size decreased, color was lighter; protein, moisture content and mixing stability decreased; ash, starch content, water absorption and farinograph peak time increased; and β‐glucan content was constant. WBF tortillas were darker than the control (C), while IM and MG tortillas had lower peak forces than C. No flavor differences were reported among C, R, and MG tortillas but higher scores were given to both CP in all attributes tested. Tortillas made with the largest WBF particle size (R) were the most similar in protein content, texture and flavor when compared with C tortillas made with refined bread flour.     

Effect of Health Information on Consumer Acceptability of Bread Fortified with β‐Glucan and Effect of Fortification on Bread Quality

Fortifying bread with β‐glucan reduces bread sensorial properties, though fortification using β‐glucan concentrates of low solubility under the conditions of dough preparation has not been investigated. This study investigated the consumer acceptability and purchase intent of bread fortified with a less soluble β‐glucan concentrate at levels corresponding to 0, 0.75, and 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread in relation to the provision of health information, gender, and whole wheat bread consumption. The effect of β‐glucan concentration on the physical properties of the bread produced under pilot plant settings was also investigated. β‐Glucan addition decreased (P < 0.05) loaf volume, increased firmness, and produced a darker, redder bread (P < 0.05), though fortification at 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread decreased height as well (P < 0.05). Consumer evaluation (n = 122) revealed that health information increased liking of appearance, flavor, and overall acceptability of the 1.5 g/serving bread to levels similar to or exceeding that of the control. Liking of the 1.5 g β‐glucan/serving bread appearance increased more in women than in men and for consumers who regularly consumed whole wheat bread for perceived health benefits when β‐glucan health information was provided. The provision of β‐glucan health information may be the key to increasing consumer acceptability of bread fortified with β‐glucan.     

Kinetics of formation of three indicators of the maillard reaction in model cookies: influence of baking temperature and type of sugar

The Maillard reaction (MR), despite its impact on flavor, color, and texture of cereal products, must be controlled for possible deleterious effects on protein nutritional quality. The present study aims to simultaneously monitor three indicators of the MR reaction (acid-released lysine, furosine, and carboxymethyllysine (CML)) by GC/MS in model cookies and evaluate the effect of formulation and baking temperature. Whereas furosine followed a bell-shape kinetic, indicative of an intermediary compound, CML linearly accumulated, proving to be a good indicator of the advanced MR. Acid-released lysine continuously decreased during baking. A reference baking level was defined to compare differently processed cookies using fluorescence synchronous spectra, highly sensitive to the dough physicochemical properties. Furosine was maximal in glucose-containing cookies, but only accounted for 5-50% lysine blockage, depending on the sugar and baking temperature. High oven temperatures and the use of fructose as the sugar source were associated with lowest the lysine damage and CML formation.     

White Pan Bread and Sugar‐Snap Cookies Containing Wheat Starch Phosphate,A Cross‐Linked Resistant Starch

Pup‐loaf bread was made with 10, 30, and 50% substitution of flour with wheat starch phosphate, a cross‐linked resistant starch (XL‐RS4), while maintaining flour protein level at 11.0% (14% mb) by adding vital wheat gluten. Bread with 30% replacement of flour with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4 gave a specific volume of 5.9 cm³/g compared with 6.3 g/cm³ for negative control bread (no added wheat starch), and its crumb was 53% more firm than the control bread after 1 day at 25°C, but 13% more firm after 7 days. Total dietary fiber (TDF) in one‐day‐old bread made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour substitution increased 3–4% (db) in the control to 19.2% (db) in the test bread, while the sum of slowly digestible starch (SDS) plus resistant starch (RS), determined by a modified Englyst method, increased from 24.3 to 41.8% (db). The reference amount (50 g, as‐is) of that test bread would provide 5.5 g of dietary fiber with 10% fewer calories than control bread. Sugar‐snap cookies were made at 30 and 50% flour replacement with laboratory‐prepared XL‐RS4, potato starch, high‐amylose (70%) corn starch, and commercial heat‐moisture‐treated high‐amylose (70%) corn starch. The shape of cookies was affected by the added starches except for XL‐RS4. The reference amount (30 g, as‐is) of cookies made with commercial XL‐RS4 at 30% flour replacement contained 4.3 g (db) TDF and 3.4 g (db) RS, whereas the negative control contained 0.4 g TDF and 0.6 g RS. The retention of TDF in the baked foods containing added XL‐RS4 was calculated to be >80% for bread and 100% for cookies, while the retention of RS was 35–54% for bread and 106–113% for cookies.     

Sodium Reduction in Bread Using Low‐Sodium Sea Salt

Yeast bread is a major contributor of sodium in the American diet. Because of its functional impact on dough rheology and the quality of the final baked product, simply reducing the level of sodium chloride (salt) in the formula or replacing it with salt substitutes has found minimal success. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of sea salt containing 57 or 64% less sodium than common sea salt on the breadmaking properties and consumer acceptability of bread. The sodium content of the salt had no effect on dough strength, mixing time, gas production, loaf volume, or crumb grain. The flavor and overall liking of breads containing sea salt with 57 and 64% less sodium content were scored only slightly lower than bread containing the control salt by an untrained panel of 118 consumers. No difference in texture and no unacceptable flavor notes in the bread made with reduced‐sodium salts were reported. Thus, it appears that use of reduced‐sodium sea salt is a satisfactory alternative to reduce the sodium content of bread.     

Effect of RS4 Resistant Starch on Dietary Fiber Content of White Pan Bread

Bread flour was replaced with 5, 10, 15, 20, or 25% phosphorylated cross‐linked RS4 resistant wheat starch and augmented with vital wheat gluten to maintain original flour protein content. Effect on dough and bread characteristics, total dietary fiber content, and consumer acceptability were evaluated. Mixograph water absorption was not affected by addition of 5, 10, and 15% RS4; however, a significant 2% increase in absorption occurred with 20 and 25% RS4 addition. Mixograph mix time was increased by 15 s with the addition of 5, 10, and 15% RS4, by 30 s with 20% added RS4, and by 45 s with 25% added RS4. There was not a difference in farinograph absorption of doughs containing all levels of added RS4. Farinograph mixing time increased as addition level increased up to 15% and then decreased at higher addition levels. In general, dough strength and extensibility were not affected by RS4 addition. Levels of added RS4 up to 20% did not affect bread volume. Loaves with 15, 20, and 25% added RS4 contained sufficient fiber to meet the “good source of fiber” claim. A consumer sensory panel reported no difference in liking of flavor, texture, or overall liking of bread containing 15, 20, and 25% RS4.     

Phenolic Content,Antioxidant Activity,and Consumer Acceptability of Sorghum Cookies

Cookies were produced from different sorghum flours to determine their potential as vectors of antioxidants. Different sorghum cultivars and their flour extraction rates were evaluated for their effects on phenolic content and antioxidant activity of the cookies. Consumer acceptance of the sorghum cookies was compared with that of wheat flour cookies. For each sorghum cultivar, cookies of 100% extraction rate flours had two to three times more total phenolics compared with those of 70% extraction rate flours, while antioxidant activity was 22–90% higher. Cookies of the condensed tannin sorghum had two to five times more phenolics compared with those of condensed tannin‐free sorghum. Antioxidant activity was 145–227 μMol Trolox equivalents (TE)/g in cookies of condensed tannin sorghum compared with 10–102 μMol TE/g in those of condensed tannin‐free sorghum. The sorghum flours had slightly higher phenolic content and antioxidant activity values than their corresponding cookies. Cookies of the red tannin‐free sorghum flours (PAN 8564/8446) were equally liked as wheat flour cookies, except for texture. However, cookies of condensed tannin sorghum were least accepted compared with wheat flour cookies despite their high antioxidant activity.     

Effects of Cumin and Ginger as Antioxidants on Dough Mixing Properties and Cookie Quality

The effects of cumin and ginger as antioxidants on dough mixing properties and cookie quality were evaluated. Antioxidant activities in cookies were estimated by total phenolic compounds (TPC) contents and free radical scavenging activities. The cookie dough development was evaluated using Mixolab equipment which showed that addition of cumin did not change dough stability and C2, but decreased C3 and C4. While the addition of 5% ginger decreased dough stability (from 8.4 in the control sample to 6.7 min with 5% ginger addition), C2 (from 0.49 in the control sample to 0.31 N·m with 5% ginger addition), C3, and C4. Cookies formulated with addition of cumin and ginger had increased spread ratios, were softer, and had lower L* and b* values (were darker) than the control. Sensory analysis showed that cookies with cumin and ginger additions had overall acceptability similar to that of the the control with a slightly darker appearance, as confirmed by color determination. Using cumin and ginger significantly increased TPC contents from 78.5 in the control to 93.0 and 109.8 mg of gallic acid equivalent/100 g, respectively. Similar results were observed in the antioxidant activity measured by 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), which increased from 41.0% in the control to 51.5% and 64.6%, respectively, for cookies with 5% addition of cumin and ginger.     

Valorization of Wet Okara,a Value‐Added Functional Ingredient,in a Coconut‐Based Baked Snack

Wet okara (soy milk residue), as a functional ingredient, was evaluated to be added to a coconut‐based snack at 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50% levels to replace dry coconut in the formula. Certain physicochemical, nutritional, and sensory properties of the samples were evaluated. A coconut‐based, soft, baked snack with incorporated okara showed higher total fiber and much lower fat content than the control, which significantly improved the nutritional profile of the samples. Samples 3 and 4 (which had 30 and 40% replacement of coconut with wet okara, respectively) received the highest overall sensory score (8.4), which was significantly higher than the score of a control sample (7.5). Sample 3 also had a significantly improved nutritional profile per serving size, such as an increased fiber content of 6.11 ± 0.04 g/100 g and a decreased fat content of 17.57 ± 0.02 g/100 g, and sample 4 had an increased fiber content of 6.19 ± 0.03 g/100 g and a decreased fat content of 15.64 ± 0.03 g/100 g compared with the control sample. The appearance, color, flavor, physical measurements (instrumental texture profile analysis), and water activity of samples 3 and 4 were not significantly different from the control sample and demonstrated potential application of this formulation in the baking industry, proving that the wet okara can be successfully used as a value‐added functional ingredient.     

Nutritional and physicochemical characteristics of dietary fiber enriched pasta.

The relationship between pasta texture and physicostructural characteristics was determined in relation to potential starch degradation and subsequent glucose release. Pastas with added soluble and insoluble dietary fiber ingredients were evaluated in relation to biochemical composition, cooking properties, and textural characteristics. Results show that both the type and amount of added fiber influence the overall quality of both raw and cooked pasta. Glucose release may be significantly reduced by the addition of soluble dietary fiber.     

Potential of Triticale as a Substitute for Wheat in Flour Tortilla Production

The potential of triticale as a partial or total substitute for wheat in flour tortilla production was evaluated. Different mixtures of triticale and wheat flours were tested in a typical hot‐press formulation. Both grains yielded similar amounts of flour. Wheat flour contained 1.5% more crude protein, 1.6× more gluten, and produced stronger dough than triticale. Triticale flour significantly reduced optimum water absorption and mix time of blends. Flour tortillas with 100% triticale absorbed 8% less water and required 25% of the mix time of the control wheat flour tortilla. The yield of triticale tortillas was lower than the rest of the tortillas due to lower moisture content and water absorption. Triticale dough balls required less proofing and ruptured during hot pressing, thus producing defective tortillas. The 50:50 flour mixture produced doughs with acceptable rheological properties and good quality tortillas. Addition of 1% vital gluten to the 75:25 triticale‐wheat flour mix or 2% to the 100% triticale flour significantly increased water absorption and mix time and improved dough properties and tortilla yields. Textural studies indicated that increasing levels of triticale flour reduced the force required to rupture tortillas. For all tortilla systems, rupture force gradually increased, and extensibility decreased during seven days of storage at room temperature; the highest rate of change occurred during the first day. Sensory evaluation tests indicated that triticale could substitute for 50% of wheat flour without affecting texture, color, flavor, and overall acceptability of tortillas. For production of 100% triticale flour tortillas, at least 2% vital gluten had to be added to the formulation.     

Laboratory Milling Method for Whole Grain Soft Wheat Flour Evaluation

Whole grain wheat products are a growing portion of the foods marketed in North America, yet few standard methods exist to evaluate whole grain wheat flour. This study evaluated two flour milling systems to produce whole grain soft wheat flour for a wire‐cut cookie, a standard soft wheat product. A short‐flow experimental milling system combined with bran grinding in a Quadro Comil produced a whole grain soft wheat flour that made larger diameter wire‐cut cookies than whole grain flour from a long‐flow experimental milling system. Average cookie diameter of samples milled on the short‐flow mill was greater than samples milled on the long‐flow system by 1 cm/two cookies (standard error 0.09 cm). The long‐flow milling system resulted in more starch damage in the flour milling than did the short‐flow system. The short‐flow milling system produced flours that were useful for discriminating among wheat cultivars and is an accessible tool for evaluating whole grain soft wheat quality.     

Rice Bran Substituted Turkish Noodles (Erişte): Textural,Sensorial, and Nutritional Properties

Infrared‐stabilized rice bran was substituted into Turkish noodles (erişte) at the levels of 10, 20, and 30%, and the effects of the incorporation on proximate composition, color, cooking properties, thiamin and riboflavin contents, mineral composition, and sensory and textural properties were investigated. Crude fat, protein, dietary fiber, B vitamins, Mg, K, P, Mn, Ca, and Se contents of the noodles increased significantly with increasing substitution level (P < 0.05). Optimum cooking time increased with increasing levels of incorporation. Swelling volume and water absorption of the noodles substituted with 20 and 30% rice bran increased significantly (P < 0.05). However, cooking loss was not significantly affected by the substitution. The effect of rice bran inclusion was insignificant on hardness (P > 0.05), whereas adhesiveness, cohesiveness, and springiness of rice bran substituted noodles were significantly lower when compared with the control (P < 0.05). Structure/texture, taste/flavor, and overall acceptability scores of the control noodles and the noodles substituted with rice bran at the level of 10% were not significantly different (P > 0.05). However, substitution levels higher than 10% negatively affected the sensory scores.     

Headspace solid phase microextraction and gas chromatography-olfactometry dilution analysis of young and aged Chinese "Yanghe Daqu" liquors

The aroma compounds of young and aged Chinese "Yanghe Daqu" liquor samples were extracted by solid phase microextraction (SPME) and analyzed by gas chromatography (GC)-olfactometry dilution analysis. The original liquor samples were diluted with deionized water to give a final alcohol content of 14% (v/v). The samples were stepwise diluted (1:1) with 14% (by volume) ethanol-water solution and then extracted by headspace SPME. The samples were preequilibrated at 50 degrees C for 15 min and extracted with stirring at the same temperature for 30 min prior to injection into GC. The aroma compounds were identified by both GC-MS and GC-olfactometry using DB-Wax and DB-5 columns. The results suggested that esters were the major contributors to Yanghe Daqu liquor aroma. Ethyl hexanoate, ethyl butanoate, and ethyl pentanoate had very high flavor dilution values in both young and aged liquors (FD > 8192). Methyl hexanoate, ethyl heptanoate, ethyl benzoate, and butyl hexanoate could also be very important because of their high flavor dilution values (FD > or = 256). Moreover, two acetals, 1,1-diethoxyethane and 1,1-diethoxy-3-methylbutane, also were shown high flavor dilution values in Yanghe Daqu liquors (FD > or = 256). Other aroma compounds having moderate flavor dilution values included acetaldehyde, 3-methylbutanol, and 2-pentanol (FD > or = 32). Comparing young and aged liquors, the aroma profiles were similar, but the aroma compounds in the aged sample had higher flavor dilution values than in the young ones.