Agronomic and genetic characterization of wild emmer wheat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum turgidum</Emphasis> subsp<Emphasis Type="Italic">. dicoccoides</Emphasis>) introgression lines in a bread wheat genetic background

During a long evolutionary history across a range of environmental conditions in the Near East Fertile Crescent, wild emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. dicoccoides) has accumulated a wealth of genetic diversity and adaptations to multiple biotic and abiotic stress conditions. The joint effects of the domestication and subsequent selection in man-made agro-ecosystems have considerably reduced the genetic variation in cultivated crop species as compared to their wild progenitors. The wild emmer gene pool harbors a rich allelic repertoire for improving numerous agronomically important traits. A set of advanced wild emmer wheat introgression lines (ILs) was previously established on a bread wheat genetic background. It combines genetic diversity from the wild progenitor as well as the genetic background of the cultigen. Based on field evaluations, the set of ILs (divided hierarchically into different families based on the genetic background) has exhibited high phenotypic variance in agronomically important traits. Analyses of variance ?(ANOVA) have shown that the effect of the hierarchical genetic factors was significant in the vast majority of the traits. Similarly, characterizations by molecular markers of known traits have shown that the genetic profile differs between ILs from different genetic backgrounds. Multivariate principal component analysis has revealed interesting associations between vegetative and reproductive traits and illustrated the impact of some of these traits on ILs distribution in the PC1 and PC2. The exploitation of the wild emmer wheat ILs as a tool for reintroduction of alleles that were lost during domestication and possible implications for wheat breeding are discussed.     

Cultivated einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum): the long life of a founder crop of agriculture

The first cultivated wheat, cultivated einkorn (Triticum monococcum L. subsp. monococcum), was domesticated in South-East Turkey during the Pre-Pottery Neolithic period. It then spread to the Middle-East, the Balkans and Caucasus, Turkmenistan, Central and Mediterranean Europe, North-Africa, and finally to Western and Northern Europe. In all these regions, it played an important role in the development of agriculture and was cultivated for several centuries before being replaced by free-threshing wheats. Today, cultivated einkorn is only present in isolated, mountainous areas of a few countries. However, there is renewed interest for this crop due to the nutritional qualities of its grain, its adaptation to low-input agriculture and high level of resistance to pests and diseases that represent advantages for organic farming. Cultivated einkorn is also a valuable reservoir of genes for wheat improvement. Its utilization, limited by its hulledness, low yield and especially by a poor knowledge of its diversity and its low crossability with bread and durum wheat, is expected to increase in the future, particularly with the need for wheat breeding to face newly emerging diseases through the use of genetic resistances. Considering these perspectives, the present review attempts to analyse the current and historical importance of einkorn cultivation and utilization in wheat breeding, tracing back to its origin and diffusion. The main traits of resistance to pest and diseases, and the nutritional qualities and technological characteristics of the grain are described. Einkorn genetic resources diversity exploration is reviewed and successful examples of introgression of useful einkorn traits into cultivated wheat are reported. Lastly, perspectives of einkorn cultivation development in low-input agriculture and use for wheat enhancement are discussed.     

Evaluation of European emmer wheat germplasm for agro-morphological,grain quality traits and molecular traits

A total of 38 emmer wheat accessions, collected in several European countries, have been evaluated using agro-morphological traits, grain quality characteristics and molecular markers. The agronomic traits evaluated were: vernalisation response, winter hardiness, date of heading and flowering, lodging, plant height at harvest and resistances against powdery mildew (Erysiphe graminis), leaf rust (Puccinia recondita) and yellow rust (Puccinia striiformis). Evaluation of quality traits has been performed measuring the protein content, gluten quality and quantity. In addition, a baking test has been executed. The assessment of genetic variability has been carried out at the molecular level utilizing 6 SSR, 6 EST-SSR markers for genes with known function, and 6 ISSR primers for a total of 107 loci analyzed. Mean 1,000 kernel weight ranged from 31.6 to 39.0 g for winter emmer accessions and from 22.9 to 42.6 for spring emmer accessions. The protein content for both winter and spring emmer was considerably affected by environment and genotype. Nearly, all the spring emmer accessions showed resistance to powdery mildew. Measurement of wet gluten content revealed high values, ranging from 37.0 to 56.6 %. The molecular analysis showed a great value of genetic distance between accessions; the expected heterozygosity and the variance between accessions indicate an equal distribution of the alleles (i.e. alleles frequency almost equal) and the presence of great variability in the analyzed material. Finally, no defined clusters were obtained considering winter versus spring accessions as well as the molecular markers did not discriminate the accessions respect their origin.     

Agronomical,quality, and molecular characterization of twenty Italian emmer wheat (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum dicoccon</Emphasis>) accessions

Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank, 2n = 4x = 28) consists in a hulled wheat; its cultivation has been drastically reduced during the last century as a consequence of its low yield. Recently, its agronomic and nutritive values, as well as the increase of popularity of organic agriculture, have led to a renewed interest making its cultivation economically viable in the marginal lands with an increase of the cultivated areas. In Italy, it mainly survives in few marginal lands of central and southern Italy, where local varieties, adapted to the natural environment from where they originate, are used; moreover, some selected lines have also been developed. In the present work, agro-morphological and qualitative traits, together with molecular analyses of 20 emmer accessions consisting of Italian landraces, breeding lines, and cultivars, were performed. The field experiments were conducted for two consecutive years (2001/2002–2002/2003) in two locations: Viterbo in central Italy, and Foggia in south Italy. The analyzed emmer wheat accessions showed a good amount of genetic variability for both evaluated agro-morphological and molecular traits. This study illustrates an increase in earliness, GY, TW, TKW, and YI going from landraces, breeding lines to cultivars, while the variability does not change proportionally.     

Grain Quality of Emmer Wheat Derived Synthetic Hexaploid Wheats

The wild diploid goat grass (Aegilops tauschii Cosson), and the cultivated tetraploid emmer wheat (Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccon (Schrank) Thell.) may be important sources of genetic diversity for improving hexaploid bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Through interspecific hybridization of emmer wheat and Ae. tauschii, followed by chromosome doubling, it is possible to produce homozygous synthetic hexaploid wheat. Fifty-eight such synthetic hexaploids were evaluated for grain quality parameters: grain weight, length, and plumpness, grain hardness, total protein content, and protein quality (SDS-Sedimentation volume, SDS-S). Most synthetics showed semi-hard to hard grain texture. Results showed significant genetic variation among the synthetic hexaploids for protein content, SDS-S values, and grain weight and plumpness. Quality measurement values of synthetic hexaploids were regressed on corresponding values of the emmer wheat parents. With this offspring-parent regression, protein content and SDS-S values explained 8.7 and 28.8%, respectively, of the variation among synthetics, indicating a significant contribution from the emmer wheat parents for these traits. The synthetic hexaploids, in general, had significantly higher protein content (15.5%, on average) and longer grains than ‘Seri M82’, the bread wheat control (13.1% protein content). Synthetics with SDS-S values and grain weights higher than those of ‘Seri M82’ were also identified. Protein content among synthetics showed significantly negative correlations with grain weight and plumpness, but no correlation with SDS-S values. Despite these negative correlations, 10 superior synthetic hexaploid wheats, derived from nine different emmer wheat parents and with above average levels of protein content, SDS-S values, and either grain weight or plumpness, were identified. This study shows that genetic variation for quality in tetraploid emmer wheat can be transferred to synthetic hexaploid wheats and combined with plump grains and high grain weight, to be used for bread wheat breeding.     

Remnant genetic diversity detected in an ancient crop: Triticum dicoccon Schrank landraces from Asturias, Spain

Emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccon Schrank was one of the founder crops of Neolithic agriculture. Though its cultivation was largely replaced by hexaploid wheats 2000 years ago, pockets of small scale cultivation can still be found. One such area is the Asturias region of Northern Spain, where emmer wheat remains a traditional crop for high value specialist culinary uses, and farmers grow locally adapted landraces. In order to study the diversity of these landraces, we sampled emmer wheat from different regions of Asturias, and genotyped multiple plants from each village using nuclear and chloroplast microsatellites. A high level of variation was observed with markers from both genomes, including a novel chloroplast haplotype. A strong geographic structure was observed in the Asturian emmer wheats in both the chloroplast markers and the nuclear microsatellite data.     

Molecular genetic diversity analysis in emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) from India

Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) is still largely cultivated in India, and highly appreciated for the preparation of traditional dishes. Moreover, its nutritional characteristics could justify a development of its cultivation. The perspective of genetic improvement however requires a good knowledge of the genetic diversity existing within the eco-geographic group of Indian emmer wheats. A set of 48 emmer wheat accessions from India including 28 from a local collection and 20 Indian accessions obtained from CIMMYT, Mexico, was assessed for genetic variability using 47 microsatellite (SSR) markers, distributed over all the 14 chromosomes. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 9, with an average of 3.87 alleles per locus. A total of 201 alleles were detected at 52 loci with average polymorphic information content of 0.35 per locus and a mean resolving power of 1. The pair-wise similarity coefficients calculated from binary data matrix based on presence or absence of alleles varied from 0.15 to 0.98, but was greater than 0.5 for most accessions, indicating a high level of similarity. A cluster analysis based on the similarity matrix identified nine distinct accessions and three clusters. All the recently developed commercial varieties were distinctly different from the clusters. Based on the analysis, it appears that Indian emmer wheats are not very diverse. Consequently, there is a need to increase the diversity within the Indian emmer wheat eco-geographic group, by introducing diversity from other eco-geographic groups, or even from other wheat species.     

Assessment of genetic diversity in emmer (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) × durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) derived lines and their parents using mapped and unmapped molecular markers

In the last few years, the renewed interest for emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) in Italy has stimulated breeding programs for this crop releasing improved genotypes obtained not only by selection from landraces, but even by crosses with durum wheat (Triticum durum Desf.) varieties. The purpose of this work has been to uncover the genetic make-up of some emmer × durum derivatives, specifically by comparing the differences from their parents. Genetic diversity of advanced breeding lines and varieties derived from a durum × emmer cross has been evaluated on the basis of AFLP and SSR markers in comparison with the corresponding emmer and durum wheat parent for addressing the seminal question of how much ‘wild’ variation remains after selection for agronomic type.     

Toward a taxonomic definition of perennial wheat: a new species ×<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tritipyrum aaseae</Emphasis> described

Nearly a century has passed since the first crosses were made between wheat (Triticum L.) and perennial Triticeae relatives with the goal of developing a perennial grain and forage crop. Numerous crosses of different species and genera have been attempted, and many have yielded fertile hybrids. Despite these successes, a definitive taxonomic treatment of stable hybrids has never been established. “Perennial wheat” is the term commonly used to refer to these hybrids when the traits of interest are the perennial growth habit and grain yield, regardless of parentage. In order to establish a consistent system in which researchers can effectively communicate and collaborate, it is important to characterize unique combinations. In this paper we briefly outline the history of perennial wheat breeding, suggest a naming convention based on the International Code for Nomenclature and describe one combination within the new nothogenus ×Tritipyrum. The development of perennial grains has the potential to allow for new agricultural systems that take advantage of the persistent nature of the crop. The taxonomic definition of this new crop type will help focus research and breeding efforts as well as organize the literature and facilitate collaboration.     

Phytic acid,iron and zinc content in wheat ploidy levels and amphiploids: the impact of genotype and planting seasons

Micronutrient deficiency is one of the most common and widespread nutritional issues. Among the factors mitigating the bioavailability of Zn (zinc) and Fe (iron), phytic acid plays a key role; therefore, in order to scrutinize genetic alterations ?related to micronutrient and phytate contents, we examined the concentrations of zinc, iron, and phytic acid, as well as its mole ratio to ?zinc in various wheat species grown in two planting seasons. The concentrations of phytic acid and its mole ratio to zinc were 0.61?1.55 g kg^?1 dry weight and 1.88?4.17 for autumn, and 0.97?2.02 g kg^?1 dry weight and 2.10?4.05 for spring planting. There was a significant discrepancy among wheat species; tritipyrum had the highest concentration of iron, phytic acid and its mole ratio to zinc, and T. monococcum and T. aestivum recorded reasonable zinc bioavailability. Correlation studies between grain phytic acid concentrations and other measured traits revealed various relationships, denoting an irrefutable impact of planting season and wheat ploidy levels on modification of wheat genotypes. The characters contributing more positively with principal component (PC) 1 were Zn and Fe under spring planting and Fe under autumn planting. Spike number per square meter, biological yield and grain yield in spring cultivation, and grain zinc concentration in autumn cultivation were positively correlated to principal component (PC) 2. Given that the concentration of Fe and Zn in all the studied genotypes is relatively high and due to the existence of other desirable agronomic traits, this study believes that it could possibly enhance the applicability of some of these genotypes for breeding purposes.     

Phytochemical quantification and total antioxidant capacities of emmer (Triticum dicoccon Schrank) and einkorn (Triticum monococcum L.) wheat landraces

In this study, samples of 18 ancient wheat (12 emmer, 6 einkorn) and 2 bread wheat varieties grown in different regions of Turkey were examined for their total phenolics and flavonoids, phenolic acids, lutein, total yellow pigment, and total radical scavenging capacities against ABTS cation. Results showed that health beneficial phytochemicals and total antioxidant capacities were generally significantly different in emmer and einkorn wheat groups. Remarkably higher total antioxidant activity (18.31 +/- 1.31 micromol Trolox equiv/g), total phenolics (6.33 +/- 0.98 micromol gallic acid equiv/g), ferulic acid (662.95 +/- 61.07 microg/g), and flavonoids (1.61 +/- 0.34 micromol catechin equiv/g) content were detected in emmer wheat samples (n = 12), suggesting that they may have high potential for utilization as a novel grain, rich in natural antioxidants. In addition, quite high levels of lutein (7.33 +/- 2.43 microg/g) of einkorn samples (n = 6) hold the potential of developing high-lutein bakery products to considerably raise the dietary intake of carotenoids. These findings for ancient wheat varieties are considered to be very useful in breeding programs for selecting and breeding wheat varieties for higher concentration and better composition of health-beneficial phytochemicals.     

Phenotypic diversity and evolution of farmer varieties of bread wheat on organic farms in Europe

The contribution of farmers to the creation and maintenance of genetic diversity is beginning to receive more recognition in developed countries. Although the use of landraces and historic varieties has largely disappeared in countries with industrialized agricultural systems and formal seed markets, certain varieties with particular cultural significance have been continuously cultivated by farmers and other varieties have been preserved ex situ in genebanks. Recently, associations of organic farmers have become involved in the conservation and use of landraces and historic varieties (called farmer varieties in this article) because these varieties possess agronomic and quality traits that they have not found in modern varieties. In this study, eight farmer varieties of bread wheat from Europe selected by participating farmers were evaluated in on-farm trials during 3 years of cultivation. Each variety was grown on each farm, and phenotypic changes in each variety were measured the third year in a replicated split-plot trial on each farm comparing the version of each variety the farmer had multiplied to a sample of each variety from the region of origin. All varieties, including the two modern pureline varieties used as checks, showed statistically significant phenotypic changes over 3 years of multiplication. However, the magnitude of these changes was moderate and did not call into question varietal identity or distinctness. In addition, some traits of putative agronomic and adaptive importance, such as grain weight per spike and thousand kernel weight, did not respond positively to natural selection (environmental conditions and management practices) which suggests the necessity of farmer selection to maintain and improve varietal performance.     

Monophyletic vs. polyphyletic origin of the crops on which agriculture was founded in the Near East

The following comparisons between crops and their closely related wild relatives provide clues for discriminating between monophyletic and polyphyletic origins under domestication: (i) Presence or absence of patterns indicative of founder effects in the cultivated genepool, compared to the amount of variation present in its wild progenitor. (ii) Uniformity or lack of uniformity (within a crop) in genes governing principal domestication traits (traits that were automatically selected for once the wild progenitor was introduced into cultivation). (iii) Species diversity: The number of closely related (congeneric) wild species with similar potential for domestication, native to the area under consideration; and how many of them entered cultivation. The present paper evaluates the information available on the eight crops that founded Neolithic agriculture in the Near East; and arrives at the conclusion that emmer wheat Triticum turgidum L. subsp. dicoccum Schúbler, einkorn wheat T. monococcum L., pea Pisum sativum L., and lentil Lens culinaris Medik. were very likely taken into cultivation only once or – at most – a very few times. Also chickpea Cicer arietinum L., bitter vetch Vicia ervilia (L.) Willd., and flax Linum usitatissimum L. seem to have been domesticated in a similar way, but the evidence concerning them is much scarcer. Only for barley Hordeum vulgare L. are there indications that it has been domesticated more than once – but again only a very few times.     

Evaluating landraces of bread wheat <Emphasis Type="Italic">Triticum aestivum</Emphasis> L. for tolerance to aluminium under low pH conditions

Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) landraces held within ex situ collections offer a valuable and largely unexplored genetic resource for wheat improvement programs. To maximise full utilisation of such collections the evaluation of landrace accessions for traits of interest is required. In this study, 250 accessions from 21 countries were screened sequentially for tolerance to aluminium (Al) using haematoxylin staining of root tips and by root regrowth measurement. The staining test indicated tolerance in 35 accessions, with an intermediate response to Al exhibited in a further 21 accessions. Of the 35 accessions classified as tolerant, 33 also exhibited increased root length following exposure to Al. The tolerant genotypes originated from Bulgaria, Croatia, India, Italy, Nepal, Spain, Tunisia, and Turkey. AFLP analysis of the 35 tolerant accessions indicated that these represent diverse genetic backgrounds. These accessions form a valuable set of germplasm for the study of Al tolerance and may be of benefit to breeding programs for expanding the diversity of the gene pool from which tolerant cultivars are developed.     

分子标记技术在黑麦研究中的应用

黑麦( L.)作为小麦的近缘植物, 是改良小麦抗病性、产量和品质等性状的重要基因源。分子标记技术作为分子生物学研究中极具价值的一种研究工具已被广泛用于黑麦研究。本文论述了目前分子标记技术在黑麦遗传连锁图谱构建、有益基因定位和黑麦特异性分子标记开发应用等方面的研究进展, 并分析了该技术在黑麦研究中的应用前景。     

Quantifying effects of simple wheat traits on yield in water-limited environments using a modelling approach

Availability of water for plant growth is a key factor determining plant distribution in natural ecosystems and is the most important limiting factor in agricultural systems. The high environmental and economical cost of irrigation, required to maintain grain yields in water scarce environments, gives an incentive for improvements in water use efficiency of the crop. The objective of our study is to quantify the effects of changes in simple component plant traits on wheat yield under limited water supplies using a modelling approach. The Sirius wheat simulation model was used to perform analyses at two contrasting European sites, Rothamsted, UK and Seville, Spain, which represent major wheat growing areas in these countries. Several physiological traits were analysed to explore their effects on yield, including drought avoidance traits such as those controlling wheat development (phyllochron and grain filling duration), canopy expansion (maximum surface area of culm leaves) and water uptake (root vertical expansion rate and efficiency of water extraction) and drought tolerance traits such as responses of biomass accumulation and leaf senescence to water stress. Changes in parameters that control the effect of water stress on leaf senescence and biomass accumulation had the largest impact on grain yield under drought. The modified cultivar produced up to 70% more yield compared with the control for very dry years. Changes in phenology parameters, phyllochron and grain filling duration, did not improve yields at either site, suggesting that these parameters have been already optimised for climates in the UK and Spain through the breeding process. Our analysis illustrates the power of modelling in exploring and understanding complex traits in wheat. This may facilitate genetic research by focusing on experimental studies of component traits with the highest potential to influence crop performance.     

Can Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum L.) be an interesting gene source for breeding wheat cultivars with increased resistance to Fusarium head blight?

Nine spring lines of Polish wheat (Triticum polonicum) were compared with Kamut wheat and two common wheat cultivars. Plants were analyzed to determine morphometric parameters (plant height, spike length, spike density, grain weight per spike and single kernel weight) and some chemical properties of grain: content of protein, ash, fat, crude fiber, minerals and mycotoxins. The studied genotypes produced a relatively weak response to infection with Fusarium culmorum which was expressed by a decrease in grain weight per spike and single kernel weight by 13 % and over 6 %, respectively. The grain of T. polonicum was characterized by a significantly higher protein and ash content than the grain of common wheat (by 19.8 and 23.7 %, respectively) and considerably higher concentrations of fat and dietary fiber than Kamut wheat (by 30.2 and 17.4 %, respectively). In comparison with common wheat, the grain of the examined genotypes was significantly more abundant in sulfur, magnesium and potassium as well as zinc, iron, copper and molybdenum. It contained significantly less aluminum and strontium. The inoculation led to a significant increase in fusariotoxin levels in the grain of all studied genotypes, and the average concentrations of the above metabolites were lower in the grain of T. polonicum than in Triticum aestivum. Polish wheat may constitute valuable genetic material for breeding new wheat varieties characterized by a high nutritive value and satisfactory resistance to FHB.     

Genetic relationship among selected heat and drought tolerant bread wheat genotypes using SSR markers,agronomic traits and grain protein content

ABSTRACT

Assessing the genetic variation and relationships present in crop germplasm is a pre-requisite for parental selection and breeding. The objective of this study was to determine the genetic relationships present among selected heat and drought tolerant wheat genotypes using simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers, agronomic traits and grain quality parameters to select desirable parents for breeding. Twenty-four agronomically selected wheat genotypes sourced from the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT)’s heat and drought tolerance nursery and four local check varieties were genotyped using 12 selected polymorphic SSR markers. The test genotypes were phenotyped using yield and yield-component traits, and grain protein content (GPC) under non-stressed (NS) and drought-stressed (DS) conditions. Expected heterozygosity mean value of 0.58 indicated moderate genetic diversity for breeding. The studied wheat genotypes were delineated into six genetic groups using cluster analysis. Significant genotypic differences were observed for agronomic traits and GPC under NS and DS conditions. Genetically unrelated breeding parents including LM02, LM13, LM23, LM41, LM44, LM71, LM73 and LM75 were selected for population development and breeding for enhanced grain yield and protein content under heat and drought-stressed environments.     

Relationship between spike morphology and habitat of four <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aegilops</Emphasis> species of section Sitopsis

This study examines the relationship between spike morphology and natural habitat for 84 accessions of four Aegilops species, belongs to section Sitopsis, Ae. bicornis, Ae. longissima, Ae. searsii, and Ae. sharonensis in genus Aegilops, section Sitopsis, wild relatives of Triticum aestivum L. These species are considered valuable genetic resources for future cultivation and breeding of domesticated wheat. The goals of the study were to: (1) document variation in spike morphology among these four species; (2) examine the relationship between spike morphology and native habitat; (3) document geographical distribution of distinct spike morphology; and (4) examine the relationship between spike morphology and heading time and value for these four species. The results reveal significant differences in spike morphology among species of section Sitopsis. The most noteworthy variation involved the absence/presence of lateral awn, such that species with lateral awn were restricted in coastal, though species without lateral awn were mainly distributed in inland. This suggests that local climate may be a determinant of variation in lateral awn, and that this trait may be subject to convergent evolution. Differences in heading time in sympatric area were also observed. The differences may enhance species divergence and could represent a lead speciation event. The results of this study will facilitate identification of populations or accessions of wild wheat with favorable traits and/or novel adaptive genes.     

Comparison of protein quality and mineral element concentrations in grain of spelt (Triticum spelta L.) and common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

The cultivation of Triticum spelta (spelt) has no tradition in Hungary. In recent years the interest towards this old species renewed in many countries. This high‐nutritional cereal, which has a high ash and fibre content, can be used in many health‐oriented grain‐based food products. Therefore, field experiments have been conducted for some years to test the performance of this species under home growing conditions. Here we report the results of analyses for some important quality parameters of grain samples from the 1996/97 season in comparison with those of older and new home‐grown bread wheat cultivars. Three common wheat cultivars and one advanced spelt line were grown on small plots fertilised with an NPK dose necessary to reach the highest yield and quality. Spikes were sampled weekly from the time of 70–77% grain moisture to full ripening. The grains were analysed for ash, N, P and K content and amino acid composition. Concentrations of 16 other macro + micro elements and in the ripe grains, baking quality parameters were also assessed. The grain development of spelt showed a remarkable time‐lag compared to that of the common wheat cultivars. However, the highest thousand‐grain‐masses, ash, N, and P concentrations were measured in this cultivar after milk ripening. The grains of spelt contained the macro‐nutrient Mg and four micro‐nutrients (Zn, Mn, Fe, Cu) in higher concentrations compared to those of the common wheat varieties. The total and essential amino acid concentrations measured in the ripe grains of spelt were also remarkably higher.

Although its wet gluten content (47.5%) was considerably higher than that of the bread wheat cultivars, its breadmaking quality was poor.