Serum copper concentrations in beef cows and heifers

OBJECTIVE: To characterize serum copper status of cows and heifers in beef cow-calf herds throughout the United States and to evaluate use of copper supplements in those herds. DESIGN: Cross-sectional survey. ANIMALS: 2,007 cows and heifers from 256 herds in 18 states. PROCEDURES: Producers participating in a health and management survey conducted as part of the National Animal Health Monitoring System voluntarily allowed serum samples to be obtained from cows and heifers for determination of copper concentration. Results were categorized as deficient, marginally deficient, or adequate. The proportion of cattle and herds (on the basis of mean value of the tested cattle) in each category was determined. Copper concentrations were compared between herds that reportedly used copper supplements and those that did not. RESULTS: Overall, 34 of 2,007 (1.7%) cows and heifers were deficient in copper, and 781 (38.9%) were marginally deficient. In each region, at least a third of the cattle were deficient or marginally deficient. For herds, 92 of 256 (35.9%) were marginally deficient, and 22 (0.8%) were deficient. Approximately half of the producers reported use of copper supplements, but a sizeable proportion of those producers' cattle and herds were classified as marginally deficient or deficient. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Copper deficiency is not restricted to a single geographic region of the United States. Copper deficiency can persist despite reported use of supplements by producers. Veterinarians dealing with beef cow-calf herds that have problems consistent with copper deficiency should not rule out copper deficiency solely on the basis of geographic region or reported use of copper supplements for the herd.     

Diagnosis of copper deficiency and effects of supplementation in beef cows.

The effects of feeding supplementary dietary copper to a herd of 400 beef cows, were studied over a two year period. In the first year of the trial, the calves showed clinical signs of copper deficiency. There was improved growth following subcutaneous injection of copper ethylenediamine tetraacetate, and the treated calves had a 2.8% increase in adjusted weaning weights. In the second year of the trial pregnant cows were fed a basal ration of bromegrass silage, barley and minerals over the winter feeding period. The feed was supplemented with copper so that half received 5.5 mg/kg of copper on a dry matter basis and half 40 mg/kg. Calving occurred in the spring and half the calves were treated with injectable copper at birth and again at 12 weeks of age. There was no evidence of copper deficiency in the calves and there was no effect of high level copper supplementation on calf birth weight, or neutrophil candidacidal activity. Susceptibility to diarrhea varied in a complex fashion; morbidity was lowest in calves born to dams fed supplementary copper and highest in calves born to supplemented dams and injected with copper at birth. The cows and calves grazed the same copper deficient pasture over the summer. The average daily gain for calves born to supplemented cows was 0.999 +/- 0.010 kg/day (x +/- SEM) which was significantly greater than the 0.972 +/- 0.009 kg/day for calves from nonsupplemented dams (p = 0.044). The benefit of copper supplementation on 200 day weaning weight was estimated at 4.8 kg. Evidence of copper deficiency was seen when a herd test showed mean serum levels below 9 mumol/L and liver values below 0.09 mmol/kg wet matter.     

Parenteral methods of supplementation with copper and selenium

Parenteral treatments can provide a rapid successful method of supplementing ruminants with copper and selenium, and avoid the possible interactions between an oral supplement and other dietary constituents. The copper preparations studied contained copper complexed with calcium edetate (EDTA) or copper methionate , copper oxide or copper oxyquinoline sulphonate. The recommended doses of these commercial preparations contain different amounts of copper only part of which is transferred to the liver stores from which it can be released during the following months. The recommended dose of copper oxyquinoline sulphonate contains only 12 mg copper and the duration of its protective effect is short. Only a small proportion of the copper in copper methionate and copper oxide is transferred to the liver whereas nearly all the copper in a single dose of the EDTA complex (50 mg copper for sheep) is transferred to the liver stores. Although no longer recommended for use in sheep the copper EDTA complex can be administered to cattle to provide up to 1 mg copper/kg bodyweight. Selenium deficiency in both cattle and sheep can be corrected by the subcutaneous administration of up to 0.15 mg selenium/kg bodyweight as sodium selenate. However, if a dietary deficiency persists copper and selenium treatments are effective for only a few months. To avoid the need for repeated treatments, slowly dissolving or controlled release systems have been developed. Subcutaneous depots of barium selenate have been used (1 mg selenium/kg bodyweight) but large residues remained at the site of injection for up to three months. Initial trials with controlled release glasses containing copper have shown that they maybe useful for routine parenteral therapy.     

Copper deficiency in the young bovine results in dramatic decreases in brain copper concentration but does not alter brain prion protein biology

An Mn for Cu substitution on cellular prion proteins (PrP(c)) in the brain that results in biochemical changes to PrP(c) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Recent research in the mature bovine does not support this theory. The present study tested this hypothesis by using progeny from gestating cows receiving Cu-deficient diets or Cu-deficient diets coupled with high dietary Mn. Copper-adequate cows (n = 39) were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 treatments: 1) control (adequate in Cu and Mn), 2) Cu deficient (-Cu), or 3) Cu deficient plus high dietary Mn (-Cu+Mn). Cows assigned to treatments -Cu and -Cu+Mn received no supplemental Cu and were supplemented with Mo to further induce Cu deficiency. The -Cu+Mn treatment also received 500 mg of supplemental Mn/kg of dietary DM. Calves were weaned at 180 d and maintained on the same treatments as their respective dams for 260 d. Copper-deficient calves (-Cu and -Cu+Mn) had decreased (P = 0.001) brain (obex) Cu and tended to have increased (P = 0.09) obex Mn relative to control calves. Obex Mn:Cu ratios were substantially increased (P < 0.001) in calves receiving -Cu and -Cu+Mn treatments compared with control calves and were greater (P < 0.001) in -Cu+Mn calves than in -Cu calves. Obex prion protein characteristics, including proteinase K degradability, superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activity, and glycoform distributions, were largely unaffected. Obex tissue antioxidant capacity was not compromised by perturbations in brain metals, but Cu-deficient calves tended to have decreased (P = 0.06) Cu:Zn SOD activity and increased (P = 0.06) Mn SOD activity. Although obex Cu was decreased because of Cu deficiency and Mn increased because of exposure to high dietary Mn, the obex metal imbalance had minimal effects on PrP(c) functional characteristics in the calves.     

Anaemia and changes in erythrocyte morphology associated with copper and selenium deficiencies and dietary restriction in rats

Both selenium and copper deficiencies in rats caused morphological changes in erythrocytes but only copper deficiency resulted in anaemia. Similar but less severe morphological changes occurred when rats consuming selenium- and copper-adequate diets had their food intake restricted to that of the copper-deficient animals. Since selenium deficiency did not affect the severity of changes due to copper deficiency this suggests that alterations of erythrocyte morphology may not be entirely due to impaired functions of selenium and copper in cell antioxidant systems. Thus, erythrocyte structure was sensitive to several dietary changes and such alterations are probably independent of the anaemia induced by copper deficiency. This possibility should be considered when changes in erythrocyte morphology are attributed to copper or selenium deficiency in animals which also have a restricted food intake.     

Evaluation of the risk of motor neuron disease in horses fed a diet low in vitamin E and high in copper and iron

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether equine motor neuron disease (EMND) could be induced in adult horses fed a diet low in vitamin E and high in copper and iron. ANIMALS: 59 healthy adult horses. PROCEDURE: Horses in the experimental group (n = 8) were confined to a dirt lot and fed a concentrate low in vitamin E and high in iron and copper in addition to free-choice grass hay that had been stored for 1 year. Control horses (n = 51) were fed a concentrate containing National Research Council-recommended amounts of copper, iron, and vitamin E. The hay fed to control horses was the same as that fed to experimental horses, but it had not been subjected to prolonged storage. Control horses had seasonal access to pasture, whereas experimental horses had no access to pasture. Horses that developed clinical signs of EMND were euthanatized along with an age-matched control horse to determine differences in hepatic concentrations of vitamin E, vitamin A, copper, iron, and selenium. RESULTS: 4 experimental horses developed clinical signs of EMND. Plasma concentrations of vitamin E decreased in all 8 experimental horses. There were no significant changes in plasma concentrations of vitamin A, selenium, and copper or serum concentrations of ferritin. There were no significant differences in those analytes between experimental horses with EMND and experimental horses that did not develop EMND. No control horses developed EMND. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggest that lack of access to pasture, dietary deficiency of vitamin E, or excessive dietary copper are likely risk factors for EMND.     

铜缺乏奶牛神经递质酶的组化特征

为探讨铜缺乏对奶牛大脑、小脑及脊髓乙酰胆碱酯酶（ACHEase)组化特征（分布特点及活性）的影响，本实验选择铜缺乏症高发区自然发病的奶犊牛6头，剖杀后采集大脑、小脑、脊髓作冰冻切片及酶组化染色，以6头同年生健康奶犊牛为对照。实验结果表明，发病奶牛大脑、小脑及脊髓中ACHEase计数值均显著低于对照组奶牛（P＜0．05）；除大脑外，铜缺额奶牛脊髓上小脑中ACHEase的扫描值也显著低于对照组（P＜0．05）；发病奶牛脊髓小脑中ACHEase的扫描值也低于对照组（P＜0．05）；发病奶牛组织中ACHEase酶颗粒的分布也发生特征性的变化。结论：神经递质酶活性的改变是导致奶牛铜缺乏症病理过程的重要原因。     

Effects of copper deficiency on T-cell mitogenic responsiveness and phenotypic profile of blood mononuclear cells from swine.

The effect of dietary copper deficiency on T-cell mitogenic responsiveness and phenotypic profile of blood mononuclear cells (MNC) in weaned pigs was examined. Outbred, weaned pigs were fed a semipurified diet containing adequate (6.4 mg/kg of body weight) or deficient (0.8 mg/kg) amounts of Cu. Pigs fed the low Cu diet for 10 weeks had markedly decreased concentrations of Cu in liver and plasma, and hypertrophic hearts. In vitro reactivity of MNC from Cu-deficient pigs to phytohemagglutinin and concanavalin A was significantly suppressed. This functional impairment was not associated with a decrease in the percentage of T cells, CD4 or CD8 cell subsets, or B cells. Expression of SLA-DQ and SLA-DR class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens was increased by Cu deficiency, the former significantly. Unlike rodents, in which inadequate Cu nutriture induces functional T cell deficiency that is associated with a decrease in the CD4 T-cell subset, swine fed inadequate Cu diets for 10 weeks had no changes in MNC subsets yet clearly manifested functional impairment of T-cell responses.     

Presumptive copper deficiency in hand-reared captive pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) fawns.

Presumptive copper deficiency was diagnosed in hand-reared captive pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) at the Los Angeles Zoo. Clinical signs, which were manifested in growing fawns, included anemia, anorexia, diarrhea, progressive paresis/recumbency, and aortic rupture. The range of serum copper concentrations in fawns born during the 1989 season (0.08-0.67 ppm) was below levels considered normal for domestic sheep and goats (0.7-2.0 ppm) and below concentrations measured in adult pronghorn (0.4-1.43 ppm). Copper sulfate supplementation of the hand-rearing formula, which was initiated in 1989, resulted in a significant increase in mean (+/- SD) serum copper levels from 0.45 +/- 0.18 ppm before supplementation to 0.68 +/- 0.05 ppm after supplementation (P < 0.05). Fawns born in subsequent seasons (April 1990-August 1993) continued to be supplemented with copper in the hand-rearing formula. Mean serum copper concentration from these fawns (0.68 +/- 0.22 ppm) was similar to the mean values from supplemented 1989 fawns and adult pronghorn in this herd (0.85 +/- 0.34 ppm; P > 0.05). No clinical signs of copper deficiency were detected in any fawns after supplementation was started. Analyses of the herd's diet revealed marginal dietary copper levels. Suspected dietary deficiency was confirmed by marginal tissue and serum copper concentrations in some of the herd's adult animals. Dietary copper levels were corrected to prevent future cases of clinical copper deficiency.     

不同来源日粮铜水平对肉鸡肝线粒体H_2O_2 生成变化的研究

本研究旨在探讨不同来源日粮铜水平对肉鸡肝线粒体H_2O_2生成变化的影响.选用硫酸铜、蛋氨酸铜作为源铜,每种源铜均设4个浓度梯度.288只1日龄科宝商品代肉鸡随机分为8组,每组36只,分别喂以对照日粮(Cu 11 mg·kg~(-1),Ⅰ组)和高铜日粮(Cu 110 mg·kg~(-1),Ⅱ组;Cu 220 mg·kg~(-1),Ⅲ组;Cu 330 mg·kg~(-1),Ⅳ组)60 d,并于12、36和60日龄取样,观察肉鸡肝线粒体H_2O_2生成速率变化.结果:与对照组相比,2种来源的高铜Ⅱ组、Ⅲ组和Ⅳ组肉鸡肝线粒体H_2O_2生成速率显著加快(P＜0.05或P＜0.01);试验第36和60天时,蛋氨酸铜各组肉鸡肝线粒体过氧化氢生成速率均高于相应的硫酸铜各组(P＜0.05或P＜0.01),并且,高铜日粮饲喂的肉鸡肝线粒体H_2O_2生成部位主要集中在线粒体呼吸链复合体Ⅳ.结果表明:高铜日粮可诱导肝脏的氧化应激损伤;同剂量的有机铜螯合物比无机铜更易加快肝脏线粒体H_2O_2生成速率,并可推测,线粒体呼吸链复合体Ⅳ是机体在高铜刺激下攻击的靶部位之一.     

Copper deficiency in ruminants; recent developments

The aetiology of copper deficiency in grazing ruminants has been clarified by a number of recent discoveries: the low availability of copper in lush grazed pasture compared with conserved forage; the inhibitory effects on absorption of small increases in herbage molybdenum and sulphur and the antagonism from iron ingested in soil; and the wide genetic variation in copper absorption between different breeds of sheep. The economic importance of copper deficiency has been emphasised by the discovery of unsuspected causes of loss: increased susceptibility to infection and growth retardation in lambs and infertility in cattle. The diagnosis of functional copper deficiency has been improved by the addition of erythrocyte superoxide dismutase to the assays of copper status.     

铜缺乏奶牛琥珀酸脱氢酶的组化特征

为探讨铜缺乏对奶牛心脏、肝脏、肾脏琥珀酸脱氢酶 (SDHase)组化特征 (分布特点及活性 )的影响 ,本实验选择铜缺乏症高发区自然发病的奶犊牛 6头 ,剖杀后采集心、肝、肾作冰冻切片及酶组化染色 ,以 6头同年生健康奶犊牛为对照。实验结果表明 ,发病组奶牛心脏中 SDHase计数值显著高于对照组 (P<0 .0 5 ) ,而肝脏、肾脏中SDHase计数值显著低于对照组 (P<0 .0 5 ) ;健康组奶牛心脏、肝脏、肾脏中 SDH活性扫描值均显著大于发病组(P<0 .0 5 )。发病奶牛组组织中 SDHase酶颗粒的分布也发生特征性的变化。结论 :氧化呼吸链关键酶活性的改变是导致奶牛铜缺乏症病理过程的重要原因     

Trace element metabolism, dietary requirements, diagnosis and prevention of deficiencies in deer

The first deer farms were established in New Zealand about 30 years ago. Extensive studies on trace elements in sheep and cattle have resulted in clarification of the requirements of those species and the development of protocols to diagnose and prevent deficiencies. In contrast, there have been very few studies conducted with deer. This review summarises information available on trace element nutrition of deer and concludes that, in New Zealand, cobalt (Co), vitamin B12, selenium (Se) and iodine (I) deficiencies are of lesser importance than copper (Cu), which can have a significant impact on deer health and performance. However, on individual farms, Se and I deficiency may cause significant production losses if not managed appropriately. There are no reports of production limitations caused by Co deficiency. Copper deficiency manifests itself as clinical disease, namely enzootic ataxia and osteochondrosis. Growth responses to Cu supplementation have only been reported in 2/11 trials and were not predicted from low serum and/or liver Cu concentrations. On the basis of clinical signs of Cu deficiency, the proposed reference ranges used to predict Cu status from serum Cu concentrations (micromol/l) are: 5, deficient; 5-8, marginal and; 8, adequate; and for liver Cu concentrations (micromol/kg fresh tissue) are: 60, deficient; 60-100, marginal and; 100, adequate. Copper supplementation strategies based on Cu-EDTA injections, Cu-oxide needles or the application of Cu to pasture are effective at increasing Cu status for varying periods. More recent research suggests that alternative forage species that have a high Cu content (10 mg/kg dry matter (DM), may play a role in the prevention of Cu deficiency.     

The effect of copper deficiency on the peripheral blood cells of cattle

Six female cattle were given molybdenum (30 ppm) and sulphate (225 ppm) to induce experimental secondary copper deficiency. The total and differential leukocyte numbers and lymphocyte subpopulations were counted and the neutrophil activity was assessed by means of nitroblue tetrazolium reduction and phagocytosis of sheep erythrocytes. The serum caeruloplasmin activity and concentration were also determined. Copper deficiency was confirmed from decreased serum copper levels, the animals with values less than 5.9 µmol/L being considered deficient. Total leukocyte numbers were not affected by the copper deficiency. However, differential counts showed a marked increase in monocyte subpopulations, a significant decrease in B lymphocytes and reduced neutrophil activity. The serum caeruloplasmin activity was decreased about 50%, but the total serum protein concentration was less altered. We concluded that the effect of these changes on the animals' immune competence may contribute to a greater incidence of infectious diseases in copper-deficient cattle.     

Iatrogenic copper deficiency associated with long-term copper chelation for treatment of copper storage disease in a Bedlington Terrier

A 9-year-old Bedlington Terrier was evaluated because of weight loss, inappetence, and hematemesis. Copper storage disease had been diagnosed previously on the basis of high hepatic copper concentration. Treatment had included dietary copper restriction and administration of trientine for chelation of copper. A CBC revealed microcytic hypochromic anemia. High serum activities of liver enzymes, high bile acid concentrations, and low BUN and albumin concentrations were detected. Vomiting resolved temporarily with treatment, but the clinicopathologic abnormalities persisted. Results of transcolonic portal scintigraphy suggested an abnormal shunt fraction. Results of liver biopsy and copper quantification revealed glycogen accumulation and extremely low hepatic copper concentration. Serum and hair copper concentrations were also low. Chelation and dietary copper restriction were tapered and discontinued. Clinical signs and all clinicopathologic abnormalities improved during a period of several months.     

Experimental copper deficiency, chromium deficiency and additional molybdenum supplementation in goats--pathological findings

Secondary copper (Cu) deficiency, chromium (Cr) deficiency and molybdenosis (Mo) has been suggested to cause the "mysterious" moose disease in the southwest of Sweden. The present experiment was performed on goats to investigate the clinical, chemical, and pathological alterations after 20 months feeding of a semi-synthetic diet deficient in Cu and Cr. Four groups were included in the study: control group (n = 4), Cu-deficient group (group 1, n = 4), Cr-deficient group (group 2, n = 2) and Cu + Cr-deficient group (group 3, n = 3). Group 3 was additionally supplemented with tetrathiomolybdate during the last 2 months of the experiment. Main histopathological findings in groups 1 and 3 were the lesions in the liver, characterised by a severe active fibrosis, bile duct proliferation, haemosiderosis and mild necroses. Additionally, degenerative alterations of the exocrine pancreas were prominent in groups 1 and 3. Lesions in group 3 were more pronounced than in group 1. In group 3, the skin showed an atrophic dermatosis, while in group 2 a crusty dermatitis caused by Candida spp. was observed. This study shows that liver, pancreas and skin are mainly affected by a long term deficiency of copper and the findings are complicated by molybdenum application while chromium deficiency produced no histomorphological effects in our study.     

Serum glutathione peroxidase activity and blood selenium in pigs

Blood serum glutathione peroxidase activity and blood selenium concentration were measured in blood samples from pigs subjected to experimentally induced selenium deficiency and dietary selenium supplementation on graded levels. A highly significant correlation between blood selenium and serum GSH-Px activity in pigs, especially in selenium deficient pigs, was demonstrated. There was also a strong relationship between blood selenium concentration and serum GSH-Px activity in pigs receiving dietary selenium at graded levels. Serum GSH-Px activity exhibited an excellent close-response relationship to dietary selenium. Linear regression analysis showed that the increased serum GSH-Px activity was a function of the dietary selenium concentration. The fitness of serum in monitoring slight changes of the selenium status of pigs with help of the estimation of GSH-Px activity was discussed. The measurement of serum GSH-Px activity seems to provide a useful and rapid means for defining selenium requirements and for identifying selenium deficiency in growing pigs.     

A high fiber diet responsive case in a poodle dog with long-term plant eating behavior

An 11-year-old, castrated male Miniature Poodle dog was referred due to daily plant eating followed by vomiting for 7 years. Each time the dog went out for a walk, he had been munched grass, and then vomited. There were no abnormal findings on medical examinations. Through behavior examination and consultation, we diagnosed this dog as having a plant eating problem. Because we assumed that the dog had eaten plants to supply of dietary deficiency or relieve digestive problems, advised the owner to discontinue supplying previous diet and to feed high-fiber diet. On the follow up, the owner said that the dog had not eaten plants and vomited from 3 days after initial dietary change. The dog has not shown any clinical signs for 13 months. This clinical finding shows a possibility that deficient diet, especially fiber, relates to the plant eating behavior of a dog.     

Zinc toxicity, copper deficiency and anaemia in swill-fed pigs

Zinc toxicity, copper deficiency and an associated anaemia among weaned swill-fed pigs is described. The source of zinc was flaking galvanising from the inside of bins used to store swill before processing. The disease condition readily responded to supplementation of the diet with copper sulphate. The interactions between dietary zinc, copper and calcium are discussed with reference to the swill-feeding industry. It is concluded that supplementary copper should be routinely included in the ration of swill-fed pigs and that the use of galvanised bins for storing swill should be avoided.     

养猪业中铜的研究应用进展

对无机铜及氨基酸螯合铜在养猪业中的营养及应用进展进行综述,虽然猪对铜的需要量氏但具有不可缺少的作用。高剂量铜对猪则具有明显的仲生长效果,同时存在比较明显的缺点,崦氨基酸螯合铜生物效价较同,具有较大的实际应用前景。