Where's the beef?: Incorporating cattle into sustainable agroforestry systems in the Amazon Basin

Low external input agroforestry systems hold great promise as alternative, sustainable production systems for small-to-medium farmers in the Amazon Basin. The design of such systems is considered essential to stabilize agricultural production and avoid the cycle of continuing destruction of primary forest [Anderson A (1990) In: Anderson A (ed) Alternatives to Deforestation: Steps toward Sustainable Use of the Amazon Rain Forest pp 3–23. Columbia University Press, New York]. In order to be successful, these systems must be compatible with local ecological conditions and adoptable by farmers. Currently, many small-to-medium producers in the Amazon Basin use a slash and burn agricultural strategy that combines annual cropping with cattle grazing in mixed farming systems. While cattle play an important role in household economic survival, grazing-induced land degradation threatens the long-term viability of these farms [Loker W (1993) Human Organization 52(1)14–24]. This paper presents a model of a low external input agroforestry system that incorporates farmer preferences and practices but uses well-adapted grass-legume pastures, rotational grazing and the management of natural forest regeneration to enhance productivity in an ecologically sound manner. This system provides farmers with the benefits of both annual crops and cattle raising, avoids the land degradation that characterizes current practices and effectively incorporates trees into the production system.     

A theoretical study for North Vietnam of alternative agroforestry systems to pure cassava

Cassava is recognized in the region as the second most important crop after paddy rice. In Vinh Phu province of Vietnam, it is usually grown on highly erodible slopes of the small hills surrounding paddy fields. Cassava crop land is generally in annual use until the yield is less than 3–4 t fresh tubers/ha. This constant cropping system rapidly depletes the soil as fertilizers are infrequently used and crop residues are usually removed from the fields. Erosion is a major problem as the soil is exposed through hand cultivation and regular weeding during a cropping season which coincides with the wet season. Sustainable and productive cropping systems are needed.In order to take a first step towards sustainability, this paper presents several possible agroforestry systems in which cassava could be intercropped with a number of nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs. Several theoretical combinations have been examined assuming a critical lower production limit of 3–4 t fresh tubers/ha. Those with sustained high potential yields are recommended for future field experimentation.     

Causes and consequences of shifting cultivation and its alternative in the hill tracts of eastern Bangladesh

Shifting cultivation, which is still prevalent in the uplands of eastern Bangladesh, contributes significantly to forest loss and is the main cause of land degradation. This paper presents the causes and consequences of shifting cultivation and its potential land use alternatives. The analysis presented is primarily qualitative with a supplementary quantitative analysis of the causes of forest loss by logistic regression. The results of the study show that traditional land practices, exacerbated by poverty and associated with a lack of technical knowledge is the main cause for the continuation of unsustainable shifting cultivation. Population pressure, inadequate land for cultivation, low education levels, policy planning and implementation without local participation are all factors that influence farmers’ decision to continue shifting cultivation. Intensive land management through agroforestry is a promising alternative that can sustainably manage the remaining forest resources. If adopted, such systems potentially provide good economic returns, and may significantly reduce rural poverty.     

Sustainable Management of Forests for Atmospheric CO2 Depletion

Abstract

The topic of forest sector carbon balance in connection with climate changes currently has both great scientific and political importance for ecological sustainability on a global scale. The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has increased by 1-2 ppm per year in the last few decades. The present paper examines the actual and potential role of forest management to deplete atmospheric CO2 concentration, with specific reference to the Italian situation as a case study. Italian carbon emission derived from fossil fuels amounts to 432 Mt/year, of which 65% comes from burning oil. Annual CO2 absorption, estimated by combining the 1985 National Forest Inventory data with selected biomass data, proves to be quite relevant, amounting to more than 10% of the annual Italian CO2 emission. This is a prudent estimate, since no account is taken of the contributions of non-tree vegetation and soil. Current forest management standards are mainly oriented to conservation. Optimisation of forest management specifically purposed also to carbon storage and non-wood products substitution may further enhance the role of Italian forest sector for atmospheric CO2 depletion: in such a view, practical issues (amelioration of existing forest stands; adjustment of harvesting yield to the actual production capacity of forest stands and adjustment of production standards towards high durable wood products; afforestation and tree cropping by means of changes in land use) are addressed within a sustainability framework.     

Land-use options to encourage forest conservation on a tribal reservation in the Philippines

The Negrito (Ati) tribe of Nagpana, Iloilo, Philippines has traditionally been dependent on shifting cultivation and on hunting and gathering of non-timber forest products for its livelihood. In recent decades the Ati have derived increasing income from wage labor for adjacent landowners and from permanent rice cultivation. The consequent clearing of residual forests has resulted in extensive soil degradation, reduced crop yields, and loss of both commercial and subsistence non-timber forest products.Various agroforestry systems which incorporate permanent tree crops into traditional systems have great potential to reverse these losses. This study analyzes the economic sustainability of four different land-use options for the Ati. The net present value (NPV) of a system which incorporates both sustainable use of the existing forest and plantations of fast-growing tree species on agricultural lands is superior to all other alternatives. Social and environmental benefits from this system further justify implementation. Any recommendations to develop such an option must take into account the constraining factors typical of such upland communities.     

The farming system and traditional agroforestry systems in the Maya community of San Jose, Belize

Shifting slash-and-burn agriculture is likely one of the main causes of forest degradation in southern Belize. Although many development projects have attempted to reduce the impacts of agriculture on the tropical rainforest, the situation is still a cause for concern. A study of the farming system of the San Jose Maya community was therefore carried out to examine agricultural production in its social, cultural, economic, and political context. Results demonstrate that agricultural production contributes to forest degradation because of the limited availability of agricultural land, the low level of investment in agricultural production, the land tenure system, limited marketing opportunities, and the exclusion of Mayas from the country's political and economic domains. Agroforestry could, however, offer a partial solution to the problem of forest degradation. Three types of traditional agroforestry systems are practised in San Jose: the milpa (a slash-and-burn agriculture system), cacao (Theobroma cacao) cultivation under shade trees, and the homegarden. These traditional agroforestry systems almost entirely meet a family's needs for food and wood, and generate at least 62% of family income. Improving the productivity of these systems could help to reduce pressure on the forest in southern Belize.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Pasture or permanent crops after slash-and-burn cultivation? Land-use choice in three Amazon colonies

Land use was examined in three settlements – Pedro Peixoto in Acre and Theobroma in Rondonia, Brazil, and Pucallpa, in Peru. Research aimed at characterizing the differences in land use after initial slash-and-burn, and presenting hypotheses to assess the feasibility of improved land uses. Settlers in the Amazon practice slash-and-burn agriculture in forest lands to produce annual crops. After cropping, lands are converted to pasture, or planted with perennial crops, or fallowed in anticipation of future annual crop production. Land use after slash-and-burn cultivation in forest lands differed among the colonies examined. Whereas colonists in Pedro Peixoto converted lands to pasture for cattle production, settlers in Theobroma adopted a strategy encompassing both dual-purpose (milk and meat) cattle and perennial crop production. The more heterogeneous settlers in Pucallpa, who included small-scale cattle ranchers and riverine and forest slash-and-burn farmers, gave more importance to perennial crops. Hypotheses are suggested regarding the described land use differences, and implications for the adoption of agroforestry are discussed. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Peasant charcoal production in the Peruvian Amazon: rainforest use and economic reliance

Recent studies point to the promise of rain forest extraction for more sustainable rural development in Amazonia but often overlook important differences within traditional communities in terms of relative economic reliance upon specific forest resources. This paper reports on a study of charcoal production among forest peasants in an Amazonian river community, near Iquitos, Peru. In-depth household interviews (n=36) provided information on household economic activity, demographic composition, and access to land, labor and capital as well as on the nature, role and economic importance of charcoal in the household economy. Our results indicate that peasant charcoal production — often cast as a rapacious, wasteful use of the forest — can provide significant cash income for forest peoples and high returns per hectare, particularly when integrated into swidden-fallow agroforestry systems, without causing notable forest destruction. Low returns to labor, however, limit prospects for peasants to prosper by charcoal production. Variations in household output of charcoal are explained by differential access to intra- and extra-household labor. Among those households most reliant upon charcoal, two subgroups are found — ‘charcoal-dependent’ households and ‘charcoal-specialized’ households — both of which rely on charcoal production, but for different reasons and with distinct outcomes. These two sub-groups are divided by differences in non-market mediated access to local land and labor. Clearly, to be successful, initiatives aimed at promoting rain forest conservation and management among ‘resource-reliant’ households must be informed by careful attention to the underlying conditions that give rise to differential rain forest reliance.     

Livestock production systems for Imperata grasslands

With or without human intervention, animals are important components of grassland and forest ecosystems. When settlers occupy and cultivate land, they invariably bring animals with them. Livestock integrated in the production system convert crop residues and weeds into valuable products while most plant nutrients are retained. As animal feed, Imperata has low nutritional value, especially with advancing maturity. Supplemental feeding of ruminants with urea-molasses-mineral blocks or introduction of fodder species, especially legumes, have significantly improved production under smallholder farm systems. Fodder species for fallow improvement, modified alley cropping or hedgerow systems, and plantations integrating livestock production, all hold promise for future use of Imperata grasslands. Diversified systems may help settlers reach self-sufficiency while increasing the sustainability of the system. Research and development interventions towards improved livestock productivity in smallholder farms may have low economic but high social benefit. These benefits are especially attainable if the farm families participate in the design and implementation of innovations. Security of land tenure, provision of credit, and mechanisms marketing of produce are issues that need to be addressed in more innovative ways.     

Abundance and diversity of soil invertebrates in annual crops, agroforestry and forest ecosystems in the Nilgiri biosphere reserve of Western Ghats, India

Biologically mediated soil processes rely on soil biota to provide vital ecosystem services in natural and managed ecosystems. However, land use changes continue to impact on assemblages of soil biota and the ecosystem services they provide. The objective of the present study was to assess the effect of land use intensification on the distribution and abundance of soil invertebrate communities in the Nilgiri, a human-dominated biosphere reserve of international importance. Soil invertebrates were sampled in 15 land use practices ranging from simple and intensively managed annual crop fields and monoculture tree plantations through less intensively managed agroforestry and pristine forest ecosystems. The lowest taxonomic richness was found in annual crops and coconut monoculture plantations, while the highest was in moist-deciduous and semi-evergreen forests. With 21 ant species, agroforestry systems had the highest diversity of ants followed by forest ecosystems (12 species). Earthworms and millipedes were significantly more abundant in agroforestry systems, plantations and forest ecosystems than in annual crop fields. Ants, termites, beetles, centipedes, crickets and spiders were more abundant in forest ecosystems than in other ecosystems. It is concluded that annual cropping systems have lower diversity and abundance of soil invertebrates than agroforestry and natural forest ecosystems. These results and the literature from other regions highlight the potential role that agroforestry practices can play in biodiversity conservation in an era of ever-increasing land use intensification and habitat loss.     

From forest to agroforest and logger to agroforester: a case study

This paper examines interactive change and adaptation of human and natural systems in two pioneer forest settlements in the Philippines. The forest ecosystem was converted by logging, further resource extraction by settlers, and cultivation — factors usually associated with systems degradation. Natural succession, however, was rapid because of high rainfall and abundant forest seed stocks; and because of high rainfall, weeds, insect pests, and poor soil — annual cereal and cash cropping was not profitable or sustainable and farmers turned to root and mixed perennial cropping. This naturally developing, more sustainable agroforestry was initially financed by boom-and-bust incomes from small scale logging and charcoal making, and took place in spite of the settlers' formation of factions and an us before them attitude towards resource use.     

Finding alternatives to swidden agriculture: does agroforestry improve livelihood options and reduce pressure on existing forest?

Swidden cultivation can contribute to deforestation and land degradation, which can subsequently result in a number of serious environmental problems. This paper examines the economic and social potential of agroforestry systems and the barriers to their widespread adoption, as a land use alternative to swidden cultivation, which may potentially help protect local forest. The Gunung Salak valley in West Java, Indonesia is presented as a case study. Based on farmers’ and experts’ assessment, costs and benefits have been estimated, which show that the two investigated agroforestry systems have higher net present value and benefit-cost ratio (B/C) than the two swidden cultivation systems. Tree ownership also creates more permanent rights to farmland and is prestigious in the community. Agroforestry products (fruit, vegetables etc.) have high monetary value and help strengthen social cohesion when shared with neighbors. However, farmers are reluctant to implement agroforestry. Stated reasons are related to both culture and capacity. Farmers practicing agroforestry are less involved in forest clearing and forest products collection than swidden farmers indicating that it may contribute positively to conservation of local forests. Increasing the adoption of agroforestry farming in the study area will require support to overcome capacity constraints.     

Agroforestry adoption in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve,Campeche, Mexico

Since farmers engage in a complex, dynamic process of learning-by-doing, evaluating economic incentives, and assessing risks in deciding whether to adopt agroforestry systems, a multi-pronged research approach is required for a complete analysis of adoption potential and to develop effective technological and institutional interventions. A case study is presented for using multiple approaches to analyse the potential for reforestation and improving livelihoods of small farmers through the adoption of agroforestry systems in the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico. Specifically, the results from a participatory research project are combined with revealed preference analysis of a household survey to analyse past adoption decisions and preferences, identify limitations, test and evaluate alternatives, and evaluate methods for risk reduction. The participatory research trials suggest that continuous intercropping and line cleaning are equally effective for tree growth, while continuous cropping during the first years offers the additional advantage of early returns to investments through crop production. Farmer participation in the research process, planning of production systems, and annual evaluations, assisted farmers and researchers in identifying limitations, testing and evaluating alternatives, and improving the viability and sustainability of systems. The revealed preference analysis provides insights as to which households are most likely to initially adopt agroforestry systems developed through the participatory research trials. In general, households that originated from the Yucatan Peninsula with more education, more experience both in age of the head of household and technical and project experience, higher incomes, and those that had cleared more forestland were more likely to have experimented with agroforestry systems in the past.     

Perennial crop-based agroforestry systems in Northeast Brazil

Land use systems in the Northeast Region of Brazil are dominated by large holdings and extensive cultivation of perennial crops such as cashew, coconut, carnauba wax palm, babaçu palm and so on. The common feature which links these crops is the silvopastoral system of livestock (chiefly cattle, sheep and donkeys) grazing under them. Agrosilvicultural systems involving cultivation of annual subsistence crops, and in some instances other perennials, in the stands of these perennial crops is also common. The paper presents the available information on the management, production, rate of growth, economic importance, etc. of these agroforestry systems involving cashew, coconut and carnauba palm. These systems are of considerable merit in the environmental, agricultural and socio-economic conditions of Northeast Brazil. However, practically no research nor even systematic data collection has been done on these so that there is an almost total lack of information on them. In order to improve the systems, they should be studied in detail and research undertaken on various components (crops, trees and livestock) individually as well as the system as a whole. Selection of suitable species of grass and other herbaceous crops, appropriate management techniques for both overstorey and understorey species in relation to the age of the overstorey species, optimal stocking rates of animals, etc. have to be determined so as to enable plantation owners and operators to realize the full potential of these systems.     

Deforestation and loss of bushland and grassland primarily due to expansion of cultivation in mainland Tanzania (1995–2010)

Information on land use and cover changes (LUCC) is important for planning of conservation and development and thus ensure forest sustainability. The current paper assesses LUCC for the whole of the mainland Tanzania. The analyses were done using land use and cover maps covering the whole of mainland Tanzania for 1995 and 2010. For 1995, forest, bushland, grassland, cultivation and other land use and cover (built up areas, bare land, etc.) covered 43.5%, 19.8%, 23.5%, 11.2%, and 2.0% of the study area, respectively. For 2010, the same land use and cover classes covered 38.0%, 14.5%, 6.9%, 36.5%, and 4.1% of the study area, respectively. The annual rate of deforestation was 320,067 ha, which is equivalent to 0.9%. Bushland and grassland were lost at 313,745 and 969,982 ha/year, respectively. Most forest was converted to cultivation and least to other land use and cover. In conclusion, the net changes were deforestation and loss of bushland and grassland primarily due to expansion of cultivation. Further research on how to reduce or halt expansion of cultivation may shed light on improving sustainability of forest, bushland, and grassland in mainland Tanzania.     

Sumatra’s Rubber Agroforests: Advent, Rise and Fall of a Sustainable Cropping System

Until the end of the nineteenth century primary forests covered nearly all the island of Sumatra. The first valorisation of this natural resource was hunting and gathering activities, followed by and later associated with swidden cultivation of upland rice. The industrial revolution in Europe and North America in the 1950s created increasing demand for rubber. Answering this new market opportunity, farmers introduced rubber seedlings in their swiddens amidst the upland rice. By doing so, they invented a new cropping system, i.e. rubber agroforests. Thanks to the continuously increasing demand for rubber by the developing industry, rubber agroforests spread over Sumatra’s eastern peneplains until the 1990s. Forest conversion to rubber agroforests conserves a high level of forest biodiversity and the agroforests act as a buffer zone around national parks. But with growing demographic pressure, market integration and household monetary needs, agroforests are increasingly endangered. New cropping systems have appeared and challenge agroforests’ dominance in the landscape. Since the mid-twentieth century, rubber monospecific plantations have been competing for land, with an undoubtedly higher profitability than agroforests. More recently, oil palm plantations have spread over the island, quickly becoming the new challenger to rubber agroforestry. Nevertheless, the international community shows more and more interest in forest and biodiversity conservation. Forest cover in Jambi province has nearly disappeared over the past 30 years. The only way to save the remnants of forests and agroforests seems to be the creation of market incentives through conservation programs such as reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation.     

Semi-wild palm groves reveal agricultural change in the forest region of Guinea

In West Africa, natural regeneration of oil palms (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) can be favoured by agricultural practices. The structure of palm groves may thus reflect the history of land use. In this study, we examined the connection between biophysical factors, land use and the structure and dynamics of semi-wild palm groves in the village of Nienh, in the forest region of Guinea (Forest Guinea), in order to determine to what extent semi-wild palm groves could be considered as an ecological indicator of the history of regional landscapes. Grove management strategies of farmers were also determined and related to farm characteristics. In Nienh, semi-wild palm groves were found in three cropping systems with differing characteristics in each. Palms were scarce in lowland agricultural areas (8 palms ha⁻¹), while they were significantly taller (15.8 m on average) and less dense (36 palms ha⁻¹) in agroforests than in slash-and-burn cropping systems (9.4 m and 55 palms ha⁻¹ respectively). Interviews with farmers showed that it was possible for a farmer to have a global strategy of semi-wild palm grove densification combined with oil palm elimination on a plot scale. The lack of regeneration of palms in agroforests resulted from the almost systematic elimination of young palms by farmers. Conversely, in slash-and-burn cropping systems, young palms were often preserved. As the structure of semi-wild palm groves was partly explained by agricultural practices, it could be used as an ecological indicator of changes in practice in relation to socio-economic context.     

Sustainable Forest Management in Tropical Rain Forests

Abstract

In planning of sustainable forest management, economic, environmental and social demands often conflict. Forest management in Southeast Asian tropical dipterocarp forests has been particularly biased towards maximizing immediate economic return from extensive logging. Overexploitation and other forms of uncontrolled land use within these forests have led to the situation where the remaining natural forests, most of them in Indonesia, will be liquidated within the next 10-15 years at the current rate of deforestation. In this paper we present an approach for sustainable forest management planning in which economic, environmental and social sustainability are considered simultaneously in order to define an optimal management strategy from a set of available alternatives.

We carried out a case study within a rain forest logging concession in Indonesian Borneo by using a participatory planning approach involving interviews of the local people, environmental assessment and economic analyses. We used the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method for resource allocation and priority setting in order to identify an optimal strategy which yields a sustained economic output from timber production, while at the same time being environmentally and socioculturally sustainable. Despite their relatively high costs, strategies involving selective harvesting combined to complete restoration of original dipterocarp stock in logged-over areas were superior in terms of economic, environmental and social sustainability. Priorities set by local communities for the strategies to meet their socioeconomic and cultural needs coincide well with those ensuring the restoration and biodiversity.     

Developing a quantitative index system for assessing sustainable forestry management in Heilongjiang Province,China: a case study

In this study, we developed a comprehensive index system for forestry sustainability of Heilongjiang Province, which includes forest resources sustainability,sustainable economic development, sustainable social development and sustainable advancement in science and technology. Based on this system and the regional forest development, we further evaluated the sustainability of Heilongjiang Province for year 2008–2013. The results show that even though the regional forestry has been preliminarily on the track of sustainable development, it is fragile. Four indicators, e.g. soil and water retention rate,forest stand growth(per unit area), the proportion of national investment and the annual carbon sequestration have important impact on the sustainability, with a weight of 39.0 % in all the indicators. We also analyzed the factors hindering the sustainable development. It turns out that soil and water retention rate, forest stand growth(per unit area),the proportion of science and technology funds, per capita GDP and the proportion of the tertiary industry production are the main factors hindering regional sustainable development, which accounts for 50.94 % of the total obstacle degrees in the system. At last, we discussed how to promote the regional sustainable development from the perspectives of forest resources sustainability, economic development sustainability, society development sustainability and the sustainable advancement of science and technology.     

Multispecies cropping systems in India: Predictions of their productivity, stability, resilience and ecological sustainability

Several traditional Indian cropping systems are used as examples of agriculture imitating the multispecies character of natural ecosystems. Modelling of their productivity and dynamics suggests they have potential advantages in production, stability of output, resilience to perturbation, and ecological sustainability, although they are harder to manage. Extra diversity in a cropping system can increase the production of a subsistence diet through either biochemical or ecological complementation. Stability of a cropping system may be improved through the incorporation of more crop species. Within a mixed crop, compensatory growth by the stronger component will tend to increase stability of final total yield. Where a two component intercrop has a regular production advantage, the land area required to produce a person s subsistence with a certain low level of risk of failure may be much less than if the crops are grown separately. Where a crop mixture contains contrasting components, the production penalty due to a disaster may be helpfully spread over time so that resilience of the system is increased. The compensatory growth of less-damaged components makes mixtures more resilient. Multi-species systems under intensification stress may be much less resilient than unstressed ones. Unless they are well managed, they can collapse. Where high output is desired, sustainability can only be attained through an understanding of the underlying processes. Intensification can lead to increased production up to a certain level, but such an increase is usually at the expense of subsequent production. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.