Changing rainfall patterns and farmers’ adaptation through soil water management practices in semi-arid eastern Kenya

There is limited documentation of soil and water management technologies that enhance adaptation to climate change in drylands of Kenya. Rainfall patterns were analyzed in the semi-arid Machakos and Makueni counties of eastern Kenya using historical data. A total of forty-three smallholder farmers implementing soil water management practices were sampled, and an estimate of the seasonal water budget for current crop and livestock production systems computed. Analysis of rainfall amounts and distribution shows increasing variability, with the average annual total amounts decreasing over the past 50 years. Furthermore, the number of rainy days within the March-April-May season that can support crop growth is gradually decreasing. These decreases are however not significant at P < 0.05. There were more seasons with low rainfall amounts compared to those with high rainfall amounts. All these subject the smallholder crop and livestock production system to limited soil moisture. Farmers address the risk by harnessing and utilizing green (rainfall stored in soil) and blue (rainfall collected into storage tanks) water technologies. The study found that farmers in these semi-arid counties practice fifteen diverse soil and water management interventions on their farms. The most popular practices are cut-off drains, retention ditches, terracing, run-off harvesting, and agroforestry. The estimated seasonal water budget indicates the need for integrated soil and water management interventions to address the crop and livestock production constraints.     

Effect of eosin Y on the formation of local lesions and on the accumulation of callose in ‘Samsun NN’ tobacco and French bean leaves inoculated with tobacco mosaic virus

When leaf-halves of Samsun NN tobacco or bean plants were floated on a solution of 10–15 M eosin Y after inoculation with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and kept at 20° C, local lesion formation was markedly diminished. There was also a decrease in the size of the lesions.Depending on the temperature very strong fluorescence due to callose formation was seen around the lesions in eosin Y-treated leaf-halves of Samsun NN tobacco and bean plants. It lasted from 3–5 days after inoculation, whereas fluorescence around lesions in the water-treated control leaves disappeared within 2–3 days after inoculation.When leaf discs of Samsun tobacco, a systemic host for TMV, were floated on a solution of eosin Y after inoculation with TMV and kept at 20°C for 5 days, TMV multiplication was not prevented. Callose deposition could be detected, neither in eosin Y-treated nor in water-treated control leaves.The relation between the inhibition of local lesion formation and the accumulation of callose in eosin Y-treated leaves is discussed.Samenvatting Het is bekend dat er een verband bestaat tussen afzetting van callose en de vorming van lokale lesies bij verschillende virus-waardplantcombinaties. Tevens staat vast dat eosine ophoping van callose op zeefplaten veroorzaakt. Onderzocht werd nu of eosine Y van invloed is op de vorming van lokale lesies en tevens ophoping van callose veroorzaakt in bladeren van Samsun NN-tabak en boon, geïnoculeerd met tabaksmozaïekvirus (TMV).Het bleek dat bladhelften van tabak die, na inoculatie met TMV, bij 20°C gedreven hadden op een oplossing van 10 of 15 M eosine Y, minder en kleinere lesies hadden dan de controlehelften die op water hadden gedreven (Tabel 1; Fig. 1). Bij 25°C werden deze effecten niet waargenomen (Fig. 2). Een concentratie van 15 M veroorzaakte wat beschadiging van de bladeren (verbruining van een deel van de zijnerven).Bij bladhelften van de boon was geen beschadiging te zien bij een concentratie van 15 M. Bij bonebladeren geïnoculeerd met TMV bleek behandeling met eosine Y zowel bij 20°C als bij 25°C en zelfs bij 30°C minder en kleinere lesies tot gevolg te hebben (Tabel 2; Fig. 3 en 4).Als gezonde bladhelften van Samsun NN-planten te drijven waren gelegd op water verscheen er callose in de buurt van het wondvlak (Fig. 5). Deze ophoping van callose was sterker als de bladhelften hadden gedreven op eosine Y in concentraties van 10 of 15 M (Fig. 6). In de zijnerven, die als gevolg van de behandeling met 15 M bruin waren geworden, was eveneens een sterke fluorescentie als gevolg van de aanwezigheid van callose te zien (Fig. 7 en 8).Als bladhelften van Samsun NN-planten na inoculatie met TMV te drijven waren gelegd op oplossingen van 10 of 15 M bij een temperatuur van 20°C bleek er niet alleen een reductie in aantal en afmeting van de lesies opgetreden te zijn, maar ook sterke fluorescentie als gevolg van aanzienlijke callose-afzettingen rondom de in hun uitbreiding geremde lesies (Fig. 9). De sterke fluorescentie verdween zelfs niet 3–5 dagen na inoculatie, hoewel bij bladeren die op water hadden gedreven dit al na 2–3 dagen het geval was (Fig. 10). Hadden de bladhelften na inoculatie echter bij 25°C op eosine Y gedreven dan was de fluorescentie rondom de lesies dezelfde als in de bladhelften die op water hadden gedreven.Bij bladhelften van gezonde bonen was niet veel ophoping van wondcallose waarneembaar en evenmin stimuleerde eosine Y de vorming ervan. Wel bracht deze stof een ophoping van callose teweeg op de zeefplaten van bladnerven (Fig. 11). Eveneens was er in de met eosine Y behandelde bladhelften fluorescentie in delen van de zijnerven (Fig. 12).Bij bonebladeren die waren geïnoculeerd met TMV was een sterke afzetting van callose te zien rondom de lesies die zich niet meer uitbreidden als gevolg van behandeling met eosine Y bij temperaturen tussen 20°C en 30°C (Fig. 13). In de controlehelften die op water hadden gedreven verdween de fluorescentie binnen 2 dagen na inoculatie (Fig. 14).Hadden bladschijfjes van Samsun-tabak na inoculatie met TMV gedreven op een oplossing van eosine Y dan bleek de virusvermeerdering in deze schijfjes niet geremd te zijn (Tabel 3).We kunnen concluderen dat er een correlatie bestaat tussen de hoeveelheid afgezette callose in de bladeren en de uiteindelijke grootte van de lokale lesies. De vraag blijft echter nog wel bestaan of callose-afzetting inderdaad de verspreiding van virus naar naburige cellen verhindert.     

β-Aminobutyric acid-mediated enhancement of resistance in tobacco to tobacco mosaic virus depends on the accumulation of salicylic acid

A number of chemical and biological agents are known as inducers of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) in tobacco plants. In the present study, a local spray application of the non-protein amino acid DL-β-aminobutyric acid (BABA) was effective in enhancing resistance to TMV in tobacco plants containing the N gene. In contrast, the isomer α-aminobutyric acid (AABA) showed a much lower activity whereas γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) was completely inactive, indicating a strong isomer specificity of aminobutyric acid in triggering enhanced virus resistance.Rapid cell death was detected in tobacco leaf tissues after foliar application of BABA, subsequently resulting in the development of macroscopically visible, necrotic lesions. BABA-induced cell death was associated with the rapid generation of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. As further consequences, the occurrence of lipid peroxidation in treated tissues, a local and systemic increase of salicylic acid (SA) levels and the expression of PR-1a, a molecular marker of SAR in tobacco, could be observed. None of these responses was detectable after treatment with GABA.Enhancement of virus resistance by BABA was found to be strictly dependent on SA-mediated signal transduction since it could not be detected in salicylate hydroxylase (nahG) expressing transgenic tobacco plants. These findings suggest that in tobacco, primary processes triggered by foliar application of BABA, resemble those initiated by microbes during a hypersensitive response (HR) that result in SAR activation.     

Small-scale vegetable producers’ perception of pests and pesticide uses in East Shewa zone,Ethiopia

Vegetable growers’ knowledge of pest and their control method was assessed in 2014 in East Shewa zone, Ethiopia. Vegetable growers were well aware of key pests of vegetables, although some of them did not consider pests as constraint to vegetable production. All respondents scouted their vegetables for pests and used presence or absence of pest as criterion for spraying. About 76% of the respondents read pesticide label before buying pesticides, while the rest 24% of the respondents did not read pesticide labels. All vegetable growers sprayed insecticide, whereas fungicides and herbicides were applied by 90% and 7% of the respondents, respectively. About 72% of the respondents washed their sprayer after each application day and discharged the washings onto the soil. Moreover, the majority (62%) of the respondents threw empty pesticide containers around the field. Also, it was found that 71% of the respondents did not use personal protective equipment (PPE) while spraying pesticides, but a few used one or two types of PPE. More than half of the respondents sprayed pesticides on mature crops and sold the produce within three to five days.     

Farmers’ perceptions of sorghum production constraints and Striga control practices in semi-arid areas of Tanzania

The objectives of this study were to investigate constraints affecting sorghum production and farmers' approaches of Striga management in the semi-arid regions of Tanzania. Focus group discussions based on a semi-structured questionnaire and observations following transect walks were used for data collection. Only 35%, 15%, and 10% of the farmers from Igunga, Kishapu, and Meatu districts, respectively, reported growing newly released varieties. The major constraints affecting sorghum production in the study areas included Striga infestation, drought, storage pests, damage by birds, a lack of access to improved varieties, and a lack of access to production inputs, such as fertilizers, insecticides, fungicides and herbicides. Hand weeding, crop rotation, fallowing, intercropping, and organic manure application were the most common practices of farmers for reducing Striga infestations, but most farmers (79.7%) had little knowledge of the best recommended Striga management practices. About 65% of the farmers did not use fertilizers and herbicides for soil fertility improvement and weed management, respectively, creating favourable conditions for Striga infestation. A systematic breeding programme aiming at improving sorghum varieties for Striga resistance, including farmers' preferred traits, should be designed and implemented to increase the adoption of these new varieties by the farmers.     

The utility of the ‘Arable Weeds and Management in Europe’ database: Challenges and opportunities of combining weed survey data at a European scale

Over the last 30 years, many studies have surveyed weed vegetation on arable land. The ‘Arable Weeds and Management in Europe’ (AWME) database is a collection of 36 of these surveys and the associated management data. Here, we review the challenges associated with combining disparate datasets and explore some of the opportunities for future research that present themselves thanks to the AWME database. We present three case studies repeating previously published national scale analyses with data from a larger spatial extent. The case studies, originally done in France, Germany and the UK, explore various aspects of weed ecology (community composition, management and environmental effects and within-field distributions) and use a range of statistical techniques (canonical correspondence analysis, redundancy analysis and generalised linear mixed models) to demonstrate the utility and versatility of the AWME database. We demonstrate that (i) the standardisation of abundance data to a common measure, before the analysis of the combined dataset, has little impact on the outcome of the analyses, (ii) the increased extent of environmental or management gradients allows for greater confidence in conclusions and (iii) the main conclusions of analyses done at different spatial scales remain consistent. These case studies demonstrate the utility of a Europe-wide weed survey database, for clarifying or extending results obtained from studies at smaller scales. This Europe-wide data collection offers many more opportunities for analysis that could not be addressed in smaller datasets; including questions about the effects of climate change, macro-ecological and biogeographical issues related to weed diversity as well as the dominance or rarity of specific weeds in Europe.     

Acceptability of pesticide impacts on the environment: what do United Kingdom stakeholders and the public value?

EU Directive 91/414/EEC requires there to be no unacceptable effects on the environment from the use of pesticides. This paper reports the views of direct stakeholder groups and results from an opinion survey of more than 2000 members of the general public on what in practice should constitute acceptable and unacceptable effects of pesticides. Stakeholders in focus groups were concerned with the potential effects of pesticides on animal and plant population viability and micro-organism function but recognized that a trade-off exists between the potential economic advantages of responsible pesticide use and the potential disadvantages of individual poisoning events. The public opinion survey showed that although pesticides are widely used in homes and gardens, their use on farm crops remains of concern to the public. Concerns are greatest on issues of human health and food quality but potential environmental effects are also an issue for a substantial number of people, particularly if attractive species could be affected.     

Can a specialist parasite species of a widespread and common host species be rare? The case of Spinitectus inermis (Nematoda: Cystidicolidae) in eels Anguilla anguilla

The claim by many authors that Spinitectus inermis (Zeder, 1800), a narrowly specific parasite of European eels Anguilla anguilla (L.), is a rare species is considered at three levels: its geographical range, its frequency of occurrence compared to other eel parasites and its relative abundance in component communities. The parasite is widely distributed in freshwater throughout the European range of the eel but its occurrence is erratic and unpredictable, being known from only 8 countries. Surveys of eel parasites in the United Kingdom and in Continental Europe show that it is present in only 13% of British and 29% of continental localities. This satisfies one of the criteria for rarity. When present, its prevalence ranges from 1.8% to 43.3%, so it can be considered rare in some localities but in a few it may be common and on occasion it may be the dominant species in the gastro-intestinal community. Populations of S. inermis are almost always characterised by high levels of overdispersion, even at low prevalence. The species also displays an ability to colonise a locality following introduction there. Overall it meets many of the criteria of a rare species including a restricted distribution and a low frequency of occurrence and so it can be considered to exhibit diffusive rarity.     

Heterogeneous Nature of a ‘new’ Pathotype of Melampsora Rust on Salix Revealed by AFLP

An outbreak of rust on Salix × mollissima (S. triandra × S. viminalis) Q83, an important biomass willow, was first observed at several locations in the UK in 1992. Rust collections obtained from Q83 in 1992 at Long Ashton (south west England), Markington (Northern England) and Loughgall (Northern Ireland), were tested for pathogenicity and examined using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP). All collections showed the same pathogenicity patterns on the eight willow differentials and were assigned to f.sp. larici-epitea typica of Melampsora epitea. A total of 304 AFLP markers was scored for 54 rust isolates, 20 from Long Ashton, 20 from Markington and 14 from Loughgall. Cluster analysis placed the isolates into three distinct groups according to the collection sites. Within each site, Markington isolates were least variable, Nei & Li's similarity coefficients averaging 0.996. Average similarities within isolates from Long Ashton and Loughgall were 0.899 and 0.883, respectively. Average per-locus diversity within site (H_j), calculated using Shannon information index, was 0.014 in Markington, 0.24 in Long Ashton and 0.23 in Loughgall population. Most diversity (69.1%) was partitioned between populations. An analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) attributed 85.8% of variance to between populations and 14.2% to the individuals within populations. The results suggest that, in 1992, this previously unknown pathotype was not spread from a common source but from separate sources. The AFLP analysis and early records on the host range of M. epitea indicate that the rust virulent to S. × mollissima may have existed in nature before 1992.     

Spatial dynamics of aboveground carbon stock in urban green space:a case study of Xi’an,China

Greenhouse gas emission of carbon dioxide(CO2) is one of the major factors causing global climate change.Urban green space plays a key role in regulating the global carbon cycle and reducing atmospheric CO2.Quantifying the carbon stock,distribution and change of urban green space is vital to understanding the role of urban green space in the urban environment.Remote sensing is a valuable and effective tool for monitoring and estimating aboveground carbon(AGC) stock in large areas.In the present study,different remotely-sensed vegetation indices(VIs) were used to develop a regression equation between VI and AGC stock of urban green space,and the best fit model was then used to estimate the AGC stock of urban green space within the beltways of Xi’an city for the years 2004 and 2010.A map of changes in the spatial distribution patterns of AGC stock was plotted and the possible causes of these changes were analyzed.Results showed that Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI) correlated moderately well with AGC stock in urban green space.The Difference Vegetation Index(DVI),Ratio Vegetation Index(RVI),Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index(SAVI),Modified Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index(MSAVI) and Renormalized Difference Vegetative Index(RDVI) were lower correlation coefficients than NDVI.The AGC stock in the urban green space of Xi’an in 2004 and 2010 was 73,843 and 126,621 t,respectively,with an average annual growth of 8,796 t and an average annual growth rate of 11.9%.The carbon densities in 2004 and 2010 were 1.62 and 2.77 t/hm2,respectively.Precipitation was not an important factor to influence the changes of AGC stock in the urban green space of Xi’an.Policy orientation,major ecological greening projects such as transplanting big trees into the city and the World Horticultural Exposition were found to have an important impact on changes in the spatiotemporal patterns of AGC stock.     

Biological control of the millet head miner Heliocheilus albipunctella in the Sahelian region by augmentative releases of the parasitoid wasp Habrobracon hebetor: effectiveness and farmers’ perceptions

On-farm augmentative releases of the parasitoid Habrobracon hebetor (Say) for controlling the millet head miner (MHM) Heliocheilus albipunctella (de Joannis) were tested in Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger from 2007 to 2009. In addition, a survey of farmers’ perceptions of insect pests, with particular focus on MHM, and the biological control program (BCP) was carried out. There was a significant increase of MHM parasitization rate after the releases, with up to 97% mortality. The survey on farmers’ perceptions revealed a fair knowledge of the MHM and the ability of farmers to describe the pest and the damage it caused. Farmers claimed that the biocontrol agent H. hebetor is effective and perceived a significant gain in grain yield due to this control strategy. Implications of these findings for a large extension of the MHM biocontrol program are discussed.     

Seasonal progression of leaf rust in ‘Niagara Rosada’ grapevine in a biannual crop system in Brazil

The soil-borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum can cause both Fusarium yellows and Fusarium root rot diseases with severe yield losses in cultivated sugar beet. These two diseases cause similar foliar symptoms but different root response and have been proposed to be caused by two distinct F. oxysporum formae speciales. Fusarium yellows, caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. betae, presents vascular discoloration, whereas Fusarium root rot, due to F. oxysporum f. sp. radicis-betae, appears as black rot visible on the root surface. The aim of this work was to study the host-pathogen interaction between sugar beet lines and isolates originally characterized as Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. betae. Eight susceptible sugar beet lines, selected by the USDA-ARS (US) and UNIPD (University of Padova, Italy) breeding programs, were inoculated with three different isolates of F. oxysporum f. sp. betae, the causal agent of Fusarium yellows, representing different genetic groups. All inoculated lines developed symptoms, but severity, expressed as area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC), differed significantly (P < 0.05) among lines. Two lines from UNIPD, 6 and 9, were the most susceptible to the disease, whereas the other lines showed similar levels. The three isolates of F. oxysporum f. sp. betae differed significantly (P < 0.05) in disease severity. Five weeks after inoculation the plants were harvested and roots examined. Surprisingly, severe root rot was observed in the susceptible UNIPD lines when inoculated with all three isolates, while this symptom was never observed in the USDA germplasm. The development of this disease symptom obviously depends on the plant genotype.     

Studies on insects and mites causing galls on the leaves of common ash Fraxinus excelsior L. in the Ojców National Park in Poland

The occurrence frequency of galls caused by insects and mites on the leaves of Fraxinus excelsior L. was investigated, based on leaf samples collected in the Ojców National Park in 2000–2001. The species composition of galls was identical in two consecutive years. Galls were caused by 5 species a total of 2881 galls. The most numerous species was Dasineura fraxinea (Kieffer) in both years.Index of occurrence frequency and Agrell's index of species co-existence have been calculated. This index reached the highest values in case of Dasineura fraxinea and Vasates fraxini (Nalepa) in 2000 as well as D. fraxinea and Psyllopsis fraxini (L.) in 2001.     

Effect of the disodium salt of cyclopentene β,β′-triketone on the development of infections induced by TMV in the leaves of hypersensitive and susceptible tobacco plants

Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection - We show here that the disodium salt of 2-acetyl-5-chloro-4- hydroxycarbonylmethylthiocyclopent-4-ene-1,3-dione (salt 2) inhibits tobacco mosaic virus...     

Molecular identification of a phytoplasma associated with Russian olive witches’ broom in Iran

Russian olive trees (Elaeagnus angustifolia) showing witches’ broom symptoms typical of phytoplasma infection were observed in the Urmia region of Iran. A phytoplasma named Russian olive witches’ broom phytoplasma (ROWBp-U) was detected from all symptomatic samples by amplification of the 16S rRNA gene and 16S/23S rDNA spacer region using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) which gave a product of expected length. DNA from symptomless plants used as a negative control yielded no product. The sequence of the 16S rRNA gene and 16S/23S rDNA spacer region of ROWBp-U showed 99% similarity with the homologous genes of members of the aster yellows group. We also detected a phytoplasma in neighboring alfalfa plants (AlWBp-U) showing severe witches’ broom symptoms. An 1107 bp PCR product from the 16S rRNA gene showed 99% homology with the corresponding product in ROWBp-U, suggesting the presence of the same phytoplasma actively vectored in the area. Further observations showed that Russian olive trees with typical ROWB symptoms were present in an orchard near Tehran which is located over 530 km south-east of the original Urmia site. The corresponding sequence of this phytoplasma (ROWBp-T) showed 99% homology to that of the ROWBp-U. A sequence homology study based on the 16S rRNA gene and 16S/23S rDNA spacer region of ROWBp-U and other phytoplasmas showed that ROWBp-U is most closely related to the 16SrI group. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a phytoplasma infection in a member of the Elaeagnaceae.     

Detection and characterization of a phytoplasma associated with witches’-broom disease of Salvadora persica in India

Salvadora persica trees with symptoms of witches’-broom, little leaf and severe leaf curling were observed in the Biodiversity Park, North Delhi (India) during February 2010. Using a nested-PCR assay targeting two phytoplasma specific loci (16S ribosomal RNA and the ribosomal protein gene) and sequence analysis of the amplified products, we identified the associated phytopathogen as a phytoplasma of group 16SrI. RFLP-mediated characterization revealed that the phytoplasma belongs to subgroup 16SrI-B. Phylogenetic reconstruction also grouped the phytoplasma within group 16SrI. The study reports a new host of phytoplasma in India and worldwide.