Extending ideas about animal welfare assessment to include ‘quality of life’ and related concepts

Abstract

Ideas within the animal welfare science arena have evolved continuously throughout the last 30 years, and will continue to do so. This paper outlines some of these developments. These included reformulation of the five freedoms concept into the five domains of potential welfare compromise. This accommodated weaknesses in the former by distinguishing between the physical/functional and the mental factors that contribute to an animal's welfare state. This development reflected a rising scientific acceptance that the mental experiences of animals were legitimate foci for study and highlighted that what the animal itself experiences represents its welfare status. Initially, most concepts of animal welfare emphasised predominantly negative subjective experiences, such as thirst, hunger and pain, and negative affective states or feelings including anxiety, fear and boredom, but today positive experiences or emotions such as satiety, vitality, reward, contentment, curiosity and playfulness are also considered to be important. During the same period, the focus shifted from evaluating the impacts of individual mental subjective experiences or emotions towards seeking a more comprehensive, multifactorial understanding. The five domains concept was specifically designed to achieve this. Subsequent notions about quality of life (QoL) had the same objective, and emphasised the importance of positive experiences. However, some approaches to QoL assessment relied heavily on empathetic speculation about what animals may experience subjectively and this raised concerns about inappropriate anthropomorphic projections. Such pitfalls may be minimised when informed personnel rigorously apply objectively based methodologies to QoL assessments limited to a short time frame. It is clear that both formal and somewhat less formal QoL assessments of this type are already used to guide decision-making about the ongoing care and therapeutic management of animals on a daily basis. However, application of the recently introduced concepts of ‘a life not worth living’, ‘a life worth avoiding’, ‘a life worth living’ and ‘a good life’ is problematical, because extending the assessment time scale to the whole of life is attended by a number of as yet unresolved difficulties. Accordingly, their value in the practical management of animals is limited so that, at present, reliance on the minimum standards and recommendations for best practice outlined in codes of practice or welfare will continue to be necessary and worthwhile. Nevertheless, these concepts have value in providing a contextual theme that strongly focuses attention on the promotion of a lifelong QoL with an overall balance that is positive.     

Piñon–Juniper Reduction Increases Soil Water Availability of the Resource Growth Pool

Managers reduce piñon (Pinus spp.) and juniper (Juniperus spp.) trees that are encroaching on sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) communities to lower fuel loads and increase cover of desirable understory species. All plant species in these communities depend on soil water held at &spigt; -1.5 MPa matric potential in the upper 0.3 m of soil for nutrient diffusion to roots and major growth in spring (resource growth pool). We measured soil water matric potentials and temperatures using gypsum blocks and thermocouples buried at 0.01–0.3 m on tree, shrub, and interspace microsites to characterize the seasonal soil climate of 13 tree-encroached sites across the Great Basin. We also tested the effects of initial tree infilling phase and tree control treatments of prescribed fire, tree cutting, and tree shredding on time of available water and soil temperature of the resource growth pool on nine sites. Both prescribed fire and mechanical tree reduction similarly increased the time that soil water was available (matric potential &spigt; -1.5 MPa) in spring, but this increase was greatest (up to 26 d) when treatments were applied at high tree dominance. As plant cover increased with time since treatment, the additional time of available water decreased. However, even in the fourth year after treatment, available water was 8.6 d and 18 d longer on treatments applied at mid and high tree dominance compared to untreated plots, indicating ongoing water availability to support continued increases in residual plants or annual invaders in the future. To increase resistance to invasive annual grasses managers should either treat at lower or mid tree dominance when there is still high cover of desirable residual vegetation or seed desirable species to use increased resources from tree reduction. This strategy is especially critical on warmer sites, which have high climate suitability to invasive species such as cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum L.)     

Winter Resource Selection by Mule Deer on the Wyoming–Colorado Border Prior to Wind Energy Development

Areas identified as winter range are important seasonal habitats for mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) because they can moderate overwinter mortality by providing thermal cover and forage. Therefore, identifying seasonally important resources is a conservation priority, especially when sensitive areas are proposed for development. We used data collected from global positioning system (GPS) collars fitted on female mule deer (n = 19; one location every 3 h) to identify resources important during winter (23 February 2011–30 April 2011; 1 November 2011–15 January 2012) in a region spanning southern Wyoming and northern Colorado that has been proposed for wind energy development. The study period included portions of two consecutive winters but were pooled for analysis. We used methods to account for GPS biases, fractal analyses to determine perceived spatial scale, and discrete choice models and conditional logistic regression to assess resource selection prior to development (i.e., baseline data). Resource selection by female mule deer revealed similar patterns between active (0600–1800 hours) and nonactive (2100–0300 hours) periods. Deer selected most strongly for proximity to rock outcrops and shrubland and average values of slope. Deer tended to avoid roads and grasslands; all other landscape features had minimal influence on resource selection (hazard ratios near, or overlapping, 1). Using the fixed-effects coefficient estimates, we developed two spatially explicit maps that depicted probability of mule deer occurrence across the landscape. Based on an independent validation sample, each map (active and nonactive) validated well with a greater percentage of locations occurring in the two highest probability of use bins. These maps offer guidance to managing mule deer populations, conserving important seasonal habitats, and mitigating development (e.g., wind energy) in areas identified as important to mule deer.     

A Social Approach to the Validation of Traditional Veterinary Remedies – The Anthra Project

Anthra, an organization of women veterinary scientists working in the field of livestock production and development, has been involved since 1996 in a research project to document and validate local ethnoveterinary and animal management practices carried out by livestock-rearing communities in different parts of the states of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra in India. Communal knowledge and innovation are an integral part of the day-to-day healing and management practices of farmers in all areas and over 80% of farmers continue to use these because they are easily and quickly available, especially in remote villages. However, this knowledge is today rapidly being lost. Farmers, both men and women, have expressed a keen desire to increase their own knowledge of these systems. This paper outlines the validation framework evolved by Anthra, wherein farmers using these medicines are actively participating in an evaluation process. Major findings are that local practices are effective, participating farmers use them confidently and other farmers are keen to use and increase their knowledge of them.     

Extending the viability of emu spermatozoa during in vitro storage by manipulation of temperature and diluent potassium concentration

1. Survival of emu spermatozoa during in vitro storage is not affected by increasing the extracellular [K⁺] to the point where it does not adversely affect spermatozoa function.

2. In three experiments, the effects were studied of [K⁺] in a diluent in the range 12·5–80?mM/l on emu spermatozoa survival for up to 48?h at 5, 10 or 20°C.

3. At the end of the storage period, spermatozoa viability, motility, fertilising ability and morphology were measured.

4. In Experiment 1, spermatozoa viability and morphology were adversely affected after storage (P?M/l [K⁺] whereas spermatozoa motility decreased as [K⁺] increased from 12·5 to 80?mM/l.

5. In Experiment 2, during storage at 5°C, the spermatozoa viability was comparable among any of the diluents (standard or modified) but morphology was better (P? 6. In Experiment 3, after 48?h of storage in a diluent containing 40?mM/l of [K⁺], the spermatozoa functions were better preserved at 10°C than at 5 or 20°C.

7. It is concluded that a higher than physiological level of potassium can be used in a diluent without detrimental effect on emu spermatozoa survival during 48?h storage and that the best outcome was with storage at 10°C rather than 5 or 20°C.     

Effect of genistein on the gene and protein expressions of CXCL–12 and EGR–1 in the rat ovary

The effect of genistein (GEN) on the gene expression level of stromal cell-derived factor-1/CXCL-12 and early growth response gene-1 was studied in ovarian tissue of young and initially ageing (early stages in the ageing process) female rats. Forty, young female Sprague Dawley (SD) rats of 2–3 months old (200 ±20 g) and forty, initially ageing female SD rats of 10–12 months (490 ± 20 g) old were selected. According to the weight, rats were divided into control group, low-dose group (L), medium-dose group (M) and a high-dose group (H) and were given 15, 30 and 60 mg/kg GEN respectively. The positive control (Oestrogen) group was given 0.5 mg/kg diethylstilbestrol. The treatment lasted for 30 days. The mRNA expression of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL-12) and early growth response factor-1 (EGR-1) was measured by real-time PCR, and protein expression of EGR-1 was detected by Western blot. When compared to the negative control group (NC), the ovary/body weight ratio in the young rats decreased in the GEN group, but the difference was not significant. Similarly, compared with NC, the ovary/body weight ratio in the initially ageing rats also decreased with the increase in GEN concentration, but the decrease was significant in M and H groups (p < .01). The administration of GEN enhanced both the gene and protein expression levels of CXCL-12 and EGR-1 in the ovary. Pearson's correlation analysis showed a synergistic effect between CXCL-12 and EGR-1. Thus, we conclude that the effect of GEN on CXCL-12 and EGR-1 in the initially ageing group was obvious than that in the younger group.     

Study on the Morphological Characteristics of Skin and Hair Coat of Yak and the Adaptability to the Cold Living Environment

Selecting 6 heads of new yak strains(the offspring of reciprocal cross of F1 produced by wild yak male mated with domestic yak female)and 6 domestic yaks at 3 and 12 age in months respectively at Datong Yak Farm of Qinghai Province. This paper was studied for the morphological characteristics of the skin and hair coat of yak and their adaptability to the cold living environment in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau. The results indicated that it should be of vital importance marker for the morphological characteristics of the skin and hair coat with two type of yaks at 3 and 12 age in months and their regulations of growth and development to adapt to the cold living environment in Qinghai-Tibetan plateau,The main morphological indexes of the skin and hair coat of the rearing new yak strain were higher than those of the domestic yaks at the same age in months, or speak precisely, the new yak strain was more powerful adaptable to the alpine cold living environment than that of the domestic yaks. The resvlts above provided scientific basis for the native strain breeding of yak and the new yak strain rearing.     

Reproductive Responses of Holstein–Friesian Cattle to the Climatic Conditions of Central Sudan

Data were evaluated from a purebred Holstein herd (n = 1274) kept near Khartoum, a hot and dry area, from 1990 to 1996. The mixed model procedure in SAS was used to analyse the reproductive traits. The mean gestation length, days dry, number of services per conception, days from calving to first oestrus, days from calving to conception, calving interval and breeding efficiency were 279 days, 104 days, 4.2, 85.8 days, 208.9 days, 486.2 days and 74.9%, respectively. Factors that had significant effects (p<0.01) on all the reproductive measures under study were the year and month of calving, and parity.The heritability estimates for all traits under investigation were zero. The repeatability estimates for the numbers of services per conception, days from calving to conception, days from calving to first oestrus and calving interval were 0.21±0.021, 0.12±0.024, 0.03±0.018 and 0.00, respectively. The phenotypic correlation for calving interval with numbers of service per conception was 0.05, that with days from calving to first oestrus was 0.06 and that with days from calving to conception was 0.07. Other correlations ranged from 0.00 to 0.28. The simple correlation coefficients between production and reproductive measures ranged from –0.06 to 0.45.     

Advances in the Research and Application of Artificial Insemination to Equids in China: 1935–2012

China was one of the first countries to use artificial insemination (AI) in equids, and it achieved international recognition for its widespread application of AI to commercial horse breeding. This article reviews the history of equine AI in China. The technique originated from the high demand for horses to be used in agriculture, transportation, and the military. Artificial insemination was identified as an ideal tool for Chinese horse breeding to improve the productivity of native horses, especially during 1950-1970. Presently, AI is still practiced commonly in China, and it includes the use of fresh semen and transported cooled semen. The use of frozen semen has also been resumed to broaden the range of elite Sporthorse stallions and to preserve threatened or endangered native breeds. Accurate prediction of the optimum time for insemination depended mainly on transrectal palpation of the mare's ovaries. In addition to controlled methods of insemination, factors like volume and number of spermatozoa in the inseminate and timing and frequency of insemination were optimized to accomplish high fertility rates in the field. Production of hinnies and mules for agricultural labor and donkeys for meat and hide gelatin stimulated a nationwide upsurge of research into the reproductive physiology of and AI technology in donkeys. In the future, there will be further increases in the use of traditional and modern AI techniques in the breeding of Chinese equids.     

Pacemaker malfunction due to mechanical failure of the lead–header interface

An 8 year old female spayed Boxer dog, diagnosed with concurrent vasovagal syncope and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy, presented for routine evaluation approximately three months following epicardial pacemaker implantation. Routine device interrogation revealed intermittent loss of ventricular capture and intermittent failure to appropriately sense. Following evaluation of chronic impedance data, failure of the pacemaker lead–header interface or lead conductor fracture was suspected. Radiographic and pacemaker interrogator findings suggested incomplete lead insertion into the device header with intermittent loss of ventricular capture and variable pacemaker sensing. We hypothesize that either the presence of a loose or cross-threaded set screw or operator error at the time of device implantation may have caused this complication. This report details the diagnosis of mechanical failure of the lead–header interface, a complication not previously reported in a veterinary patient.     

A field study of kick injuries to the radius and tibia in 51 horses (2000–2010)

The objective of this study was to examine all kick injuries to the radius and tibia seen in an ambulatory setting over an 11-year period in order to determine factors affecting outcome. Medical records of 51 horses seen for a kick injury to the radius or tibia were reviewed. Signalment, physical examination findings, type of management, and outcome were evaluated. There was a significant association between the presence of bony crepitus and a lameness score of ≥ 4/5 and a poor outcome. There was no relationship between signalment and outcome, but significantly more Thoroughbred/Thoroughbred cross horses were affected than any other breed. There was no detected relationship between the type of management and outcome; however, most (81%) horses were managed on stall rest. Horses with bony crepitus or with a lameness score of ≥ 4/5 were at an increased risk for euthanasia.     

Serological and parasitological survey of dourine in the Arsi–Bale highlands of Ethiopia

This study was conducted from August 2005 to January 2007 to determine prevalence and distribution of dourine in horses and to investigate the occurrence of clinical and carrier cases in donkeys and mules in the Arsi–Bale highlands. Study methodology was based on questionnaire, serological, clinical and parasitological survey. The questionnaire indicated that dourine is a major health problem of equines in the Arsi–Bale highlands. Though dourine is commonly observed throughout the year, it has a seasonal character and occurs mostly during the breeding season from June to late September. Serological screening of 646 horses showed a seroprevalence of 184 (28%), 161 (25%) and 125 (19%) for card agglutination test for trypanosomosis, LATEX and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. Risk factors were parity number, previous history of abortion and body condition score. No trypanosomes could be detected by Giemsa staining or by haematocrit centrifugation technique. Ten puppies inoculated with blood samples, genital washes and oedematous fluids remained parasitologically negative. Different characteristic signs of dourine were observed. During the genital stage, mares showed vaginal oedema, discharge and presence of depigmented scars over the external genitalia. In stallions, oedema of the scrotum and prepuce, prepucial and urethral discharge, and ulceration of the genital mucosae mainly of the penile were observed. In both sexes, lameness in one or both legs, partial dragging and stiffness of the hind legs and incoordination were the dominant signs observed as nervous form of the disease.     

An overview of the dog–human dyad and ethograms within it

This article reviews the literature on the complex and variable nature of the dog–human dyad and describes the influence of terms such as “dominance” on attitudes that humans have toward dogs. It highlights a legacy of tension between ethology and psychology and notes that some practitioners have skills with dogs that elude the best learning theorists. Despite the widespread appeal of being able to communicate with dogs as dogs do with one another, attempting to apply the intraspecific dog ethogram to human–dog and dog–human interactions may have limited scope. The balance of learning theory and ethology on our interactions with dogs is sometimes elusive but should spur the scientific community to examine skills deployed by the most effective humane practitioners. This process will demystify the so-called whispering techniques and permit discourse on the reasons some training and handling techniques are more effective, relevant, and humane than others. This article explores the mismatch between the use of nonverbal communication of 2 species and offers a framework for future studies in this domain. Technologies emerging from equitation science may help to disclose confusing interventions through the collar and lead and thus define effective and humane use of negative reinforcement. The case for a validated intraspecific and interspecific canid ethogram is also made.     

Effects of Epidural Ketamine–Xylazine Combination on the Clinicophysiological and Haematobiochemical Parameters of Uraemic and Healthy Goats

Xylazine–ketamine combination was evaluated for its efficacy and safety after epidural administration in uraemic and healthy goats. The combination (xylazine 0.025 mg/kg and ketamine 2.5 mg/kg) was administered to uraemic (n = 6) and healthy (n = 6) animals in the lumbosacral epidural space. The combination was evaluated in terms of clinical, physiological, haematological and biochemical parameters. The onset of analgesia was faster in healthy animals than in uraemic animals. Xylazine and ketamine produced complete analgesia of tail, perineum, inguinal and thigh regions in all animals of both groups. However, healthy animals showed longer duration of complete analgesia than did uraemic animals. Greater ataxia was recorded in healthy animals than in uraemic animals. The heart rate showed a significant decrease in both groups; however, respiratory rate and rectal temperature did not show any significant changes. Haemoglobin, packed cell volume and total leukocyte count decreased non-significantly in both groups. Total leukocyte count was significantly higher in uraemic animals. A significantly higher value of urea nitrogen and creatinine was recorded in uraemic animals. The blood electrolytes (Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl⁻) and blood gases (P o ₂ and P co ₂) did not show any significant changes in both groups; however, base excess was significantly higher in uraemic animals. The effects produced by the combination on different systems were transient and values normal as the effect of the drugs wore off. The results suggest that the combination when used epidurally in uraemic goats produced effective and safe surgical analgesia.     

Activities of Enzymes Related to the Malate–Aspartate Shuttle in the Blood Cells of Thoroughbred Horses Undergoing Training Exercise

The activities of the enzymes related to the malate–aspartate shuttle, which convert cytosolic NADH into mitochondrial NADH, were measured in red and white blood cells from thoroughbred horses undergoing continuous training (race horses) and compared with those in blood cells from riding horses. The activities of malate dehydrogenase (MDH), a rate-limiting enzyme for the malate-aspartate shuttle, were significantly elevated in the white blood cells (WBC) from race horses compared with those from riding horses. There were no significant differences in the activities of the enzymes in the red blood cells between race horses and riding horses. This increase in the MDH activity in their WBC is considered to reflect the increased metabolic activity in the race horses resulting from the training.     

Behavioral and cardiopulmonary effects of dexmedetomidine–midazolam and dexmedetomidine–midazolam–butorphanol in the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes)

Objective

To evaluate the behavior and some cardiopulmonary variables of dexmedetomidine–midazolam or dexmedetomidine–midazolam-butor-phanol in the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes).

Comparison of the effects of butorphanol–midazolam–medetomidine and butorphanol–azaperone–medetomidine in wild common palm civets (Paradoxurus musangus)

ObjectiveTo assess the efficacy of butorphanol–azaperone–medetomidine (BAM) and butorphanol–midazolam–medetomidine (BMM) protocols for immobilization of wild common palm civets (Paradoxurus musangus) with subsequent antagonization with atipamezole.Study designProspective, randomized, blinded clinical trial.AnimalsA total of 40 adult wild common palm civets, 24 female and 16 male, weighing 1.5–3.4 kg.MethodsThe civets were randomly assigned for anesthesia with butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (0.6, 0.6 and 0.2 mg kg^–1, respectively; group BAM) or with butorphanol, midazolam and medetomidine (0.3, 0.4 and 0.1 mg kg^–1, respectively; group BMM) intramuscularly (IM) in a squeeze cage. When adequately relaxed, the trachea was intubated for oxygen administration. Physiological variables were recorded every 5 minutes after intubation. Following morphometric measurements, sampling, microchipping and parasite treatment, medetomidine was reversed with atipamezole at 1.0 or 0.5 mg kg^–1 IM to groups BAM and BMM, respectively. Physiological variables and times to reach the different stages of anesthesia were compared between groups.ResultsOnset time of sedation and recumbency was similar in both groups; time to achieve complete relaxation and tracheal intubation was longer in group BAM. Supplementation with isoflurane was required to enable intubation in five civets in group BAM and one civet in group BMM. All civets in group BAM required topical lidocaine to facilitate intubation. End-tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure was lower in group BAM, but heart rate, respiratory rate, rectal temperature, peripheral hemoglobin oxygen saturation and mean arterial blood pressure were not different. All civets in both groups recovered well following administration of atipamezole.Conclusions and clinical relevanceBoth BAM and BMM combinations were effective for immobilizing wild common palm civets. The BMM combination had the advantage of producing complete relaxation that allowed intubation more rapidly.     

Genetic and Environmental Effects on the Productivity of Holstein–Friesian Cattle under the Climatic Conditions of Central Sudan

A herd of 370 Holstein–Friesian cows were maintained in Central Sudan, Khartoum for intensive dairy production during the period 1990–1996. The area is characterized by high temperatures during the day and cools down at night, with an average thermal-humidity index (THI) of 74.8. The average adjusted lactation milk yield, milk yield per day, milk yield per day of calving interval and lactation length of the animals in the herd were 5117±123 (SE) kg, 14.7±0.25 kg, 11.3±0.36 kg and 350±8.0 days, respectively. Heifers calved at 25.2±2.3 (SD) months of age. The variation was large, which suggested large environmental fluctuations. Sire variance contributed 1.35% and 19.6% to the total variance in cows and heifers, respectively, while cow within sire contributed 19%. The heritabilities of total lactation yield, 305-day yield, milk per day of lactation, milk per day of calving interval, and lactation length in heifers were 0.78±0.24, 0.36±0.34, 0.39±0.24, 0.23±0.23, and 0.23±0.22, respectively. In cows, the heritability estimates were 0.05±0.24, 0.06±0.24, 0.08±0.24, 0.00 and 0.00 for the same traits, respectively. The repeatabilities of total lactation yield, 305-day yield, milk per day, milk per day of calving interval and lactation length were 0.02±0.03, 0.22±0.03, 0.17±0.02, 0.05±0.02 and 0.00, respectively. Regression analysis showed that, for each unit increase in THI, milk yield decreased by 0.29±0.04 kg. The stress usually caused by the combined effects of temperature and humidity was not severe in this area.