A Radioisotopic Study of the Entry of Calcium Ion into the Maize Kernel During Nixtamalization

The entry of calcium ions from the nixtamalization solution into maize kernels over time was followed in model experiments using radiolabeled calcium ions, with autoradiographic evaluation of the kernels after different cooking and steeping times. Calcium ions immediately entered the pericarp and were rapidly fixed at the outer boundary of the endosperm, especially at the external surface of the germ. Entry of calcium into the endosperm occurred gradually after long steeping times, except in the case of broken kernels, for which massive invasion by calcium was observed. After extended steeping times, a moderate amount of calcium‐45 was evident in the germ. Specific perforation of the outer layers of the grains provided a defined route of facilitated entry of calcium into the endosperm. No fundamental difference with respect to penetrability by calcium ion was seen in a comparison between flint‐type grains and grains containing only floury endosperm.     

Study of Structural and Thermal Changes in Endosperm of Quality Protein Maize During Traditional Nixtamalization Process

This work presents the study of the structural changes of the endosperm of Quality Protein Maize (QPM H-368C), modified by alkaline cooking at two different temperatures (72 and 92°C) and steeping time of 0–7 hr. Structural changes in the outermost 10% layers, the subsequent 10%, and the remaining 80% of the endosperm as a function of the steeping time were studied using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) techniques. SEM images revealed that soft and hard endosperm have different shapes and packing factors. The X-ray diffraction patterns of the hard and soft endosperm from raw corn suggest that the hard endosperm consists mainly of amylopectin and has a bigger relative crystallinity quality than the soft endosperm. Samples cooked at 72 and 92°C with and without the (Ca(OH)₂ and steeped for 0, 3, and 7 hr, showed structural changes, X-ray diffraction patterns from the outermost 10% layers and subsequent 10% of the endosperm were completely amorphous. This fact is related to the total or partial gelatinization of the starch. The crystallinity in the internal layers of endosperm (remaining 80%) did not have significant changes after the treatments and exhibited the characteristic patterns of crystalline amylose and amylopectin. DSC measurements in the outermost layers of the endosperm did not exhibit the characteristic endothermic peak of starch (from 64 to 81°C) compared with the raw sample, while the endotherm peak for 80% of the endosperm internal layers appears in all cases (72 and 92°C). According to these results, a new definition of the nixtamalization process can be developed as follows. During the nixtamalization process there is a total gelatinization of the starch granules from the most external layers, and a partial gelatinization of the innermost internal layers of the endosperm.     

Effects of Annealing and Concentration of Calcium Salts on Thermal and Rheological Properties of Maize Starch During an Ecological Nixtamalization Process

The objective of the present work was to study the effect of annealing and concentration of Ca(OH)₂ (lime) and calcium salts on the thermal and rheological properties of maize starch during an ecological nixtamalization process. Thermal and rheological properties of maize starch changed during the ecological nixtamalization process because of three main causes: the annealing phenomenon, type of calcium salt, and calcium salt concentration. In all treatments thermal properties (T_o, T_p, and T_f) of nixtamal starch increased owing to the annealing process, whereas the type of salt or lime increased thermal properties and decreased pasting properties in this order: CaCl₂ > CaSO₄ > Ca(OH)₂ ≈ CaCO₃. This behavior was because of the dissociation of each salt or lime in water. Anions (OH⁻) can penetrate much more easily into the starch granule and start the gelatinization process by rupturing hydrogen bonds. Additionally, amylose‐lipid complexes were formed during the nixtamalization processes, as indicated by an increasing peak at 4.5 Å in X‐ray diffraction patterns.     

Study of Calcium Ion Diffusion in Nixtamalized Quality Protein Maize as a Function of Cooking Temperature

In this report, the effect of temperature on the calcium content of Quality Protein Maize (QPM H-368C) during the nixtamalization process as a function of the steeping time for three cooking temperatures (72, 82, and 92°C) is presented. Also, for the first time, we report in physico-chemical terms the end of the cooking stage during the nixtamalization process that was established when the moisture content in corn kernels reached a value of 36% (w/w) with a lime concentration of 1% (w/v), independent of the cooking temperature. Atomic absorption spectroscopy was used to determine the calcium concentration in the whole kernel and in its different anatomical components (pericarp, endosperm, and germ) as well as in 10% of the outermost layers, the next 10%, and the remaining 80% of the endosperm as a function of the steeping time. It was found that if the cooking temperature increases, the calcium content increases also. For steeping times in the range of 5–7 hr, a relative maximum was found in the calcium contents of 0.24, 0.21, and 0.18% (w/w) in QPM H-368 flours at 92, 82, and 72°C, respectively. Calcium was found in the most external layers in the endosperm and minimum diffusion occurs in the internal 80%. Phosphorous was measured by using UV spectroscopy and the results showed that it remains constant at 0.24% throughout the process. Scanning electron microscopy analysis was used to explain the calcium ion diffusion in the kernel. The physical changes in the pericarp govern the calcium diffusion process.     

Effect of Temperature and Steeping Time on Calcium and Phosphorus Content in Nixtamalized Corn Flours Obtained by Traditional Nixtamalization Process

This report shows the effect of temperature (72, 82, and 92°C) during the cooking stage and steeping time (0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, and 15 hr) on calcium and phosphorus contents in nixtamalized corn flours obtained by the traditional nixtamalization process (NCF). In addition, calcium and phosphorus contents in industrial nixtamalized corn flours were analyzed for comparative purposes. Atomic absorption spectroscopy and UV‐vis spectroscopy methods were used to study the calcium and phosphorus contents as well as the Ca²⁺/P ratio in NCF and industrial nixtamalized corn flours. Additionally, deposition and identification of calcium compounds in the nixtamalized corn pericarp were analyzed by low‐vacuum scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectrometry, and X‐ray diffraction techniques. Dry matter loss in NCF is also reported. As the temperature increased, Ca²⁺ content was enhanced, while the phosphorus content decreased with statistical differences (P ≤ 0.05) between thermal treatments. Ca²⁺ content in industrial nixtamalized corn flours was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than that of NCF. On the other hand, no statistical differences (P ≤ 0.05) were found between phosphorus content in commercial nixtamalized corn flours and NCF. Calcium compounds, identified as calcite, were detected in corn pericarp. Statistical differences (P ≤ 0.05) were observed in phosphorous content in NCF obtained at different cooking temperatures. In addition, a decrease in phosphorus levels significantly correlated with the steeping time at 92°C (r = –0.91). At 72, 82, and 92°C, the average Ca²⁺/P ratio in NCF was 0.45 ± 0.03, 0.61 ± 0.05, and 0.82 ± 0.05, respectively, indicating a correlation between this parameter and the cooking temperature. However, no correlation was found between the Ca²⁺/P ratio and the steeping time. This behavior is attributed to calcium attached to corn kernel. In commercial nixtamalized corn flours, the Ca²⁺/P ratio was significantly lower (P ≤ 0.05) than that of NCF. There was a significant correlation (P ≤ 0.01) between dry matter loss and steeping time (r = 0.99) in NCF, this fact influenced the Ca²⁺/P ratio due to the calcium attached to pericarp. At 82 and 92°C, maximum values of Ca²⁺/P ratio were detected in NCF at 7 hr of steeping time and at 9 hr at 72°C. These results can be used with industrial purposes to assess a maximum calcium‐to‐phosphorus ratio, and at the same time, to avoid the loss of pericarp to increase the functional properties of NCF.     

Chemical and Physicochemical Properties of Maize Starch After Industrial Nixtamalization

Processing conditions similar to traditional nixtamalization are now used by the industry in the production of dry maize flours (DMF). The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of industrial nixtamalization on maize starch. Thus, dent maize grains were sampled from storage silos and the starch isolated (S). From the same batch of maize, DMF was obtained and the starch isolated (S‐DMF). The amylose content in the starches was quite similar (21.5–23.4%) and characteristic of a dent maize. However, nixtamalization increased the calcium content in S‐DMF. The starches investigated exhibited the typical A‐type diffraction pattern after 40 days of storage at 11–84.1% rh. However, the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results showed that annealing of maize starch occurred during storage at 30°C. On the other hand, industrial nixtamalization has both a melting and annealing effect on maize starch. Thus, the operative glass transition temperature (T_g), and the DSC parameters that define starch gelatinization (T_p and ΔH) showed that the proportion between crystalline and amorphous regions within the starch granule and the extent of physical damage to starch were modified by nixtamalization. As an example, T_g for S was between 60 and 62.5°C, while the S‐DMF had a T_g of 45–55°C for damaged starch and 65–70°C for annealed starch. Additionally, the extraction of the nonconstitutive starch lipids provided starches with more consistent thermal properties, particularly in the behavior of gelatinization at different water content. This last observation might have important implications in the consistency of starch physicochemical properties and, consequently, in the quality of maize products such as tortillas.     

Effect of the Nixtamalization Process on the Dietary Fiber Content,Starch Digestibility,and Antioxidant Capacity of Blue Maize Tortilla

Nixtamalization is an ancient process developed by the Mesoamerican cultures. Initially, volcanic ashes were used and then calcium hydroxide in commercial production, and more recently nixtamalization with calcium salts (NCS) has been proposed. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of NCS on carbohydrate digestibility and antioxidant capacity in the elaboration of blue maize tortillas. NCS in blue tortillas showed a high amount of total dietary fiber (14.27 g/100 g), the main fraction being insoluble dietary fiber. The contents of resistant starch and slowly digestible starch did not change with the nixtamalization process. The predicted glycemic index value was lower in blue tortillas with the NCS process (58) than with the traditional nixtamalization process (71). In general, NCS in blue tortillas presented a higher antioxidant capacity than traditional tortillas (ferric reducing antioxidant power method), indicating that phenolics present in blue maize maintain their activity after cooking. It can be concluded that the nutraceutical features (high dietary fiber content and antioxidant capacity) of blue maize tortillas are enhanced when they are elaborated with the NCS process.     

Resistant Starch Formation in Tortillas from an Ecological Nixtamalization Process

The objective of this work was to study the formation of resistant starch (RS) in tortillas from an ecological nixtamalization process compared with the traditional nixtamalization process. The RS increased through all the steps of tortilla production. It was found that the increase of the RS corresponds mainly to the formation of RS5 (V‐amylose‐lipid complex), but in tortillas two major types of RS coexist: RS5 and RS3 (retrograded starch). In general, tortillas from the ecological nixtamalization process gave higher values of protein, lipids, total dietary fiber, insoluble fiber, soluble fiber, and RS compared with tortillas from the traditional nixtamalization process and commercial flour. The highest glycemic index (GI) occurred in the tortillas from commercial flour, whereas tortillas from 0.4% CaCO₃ and 0.6% CaSO₄ were classified as medium‐GI (GI 50–70). Tortillas from 0.6% CaCl₂ had the lowest value of GI. The ecological nixtamalization processes caused significant differences in quality and nutritional properties of tortillas.     

紫色土区玉米季坡耕地片蚀过程研究

通过采用人工模拟降雨与微小区试验相结合的方法,研究玉米种植下紫色土坡耕地片蚀过程,分析雨强变化对片蚀产流产沙的影响。结果表明:随着雨强增加,玉米各生育期片蚀出现时间不断提前,片蚀过程产流总量不断减少,产流强度不断增加;含沙量和产沙强度不断增加,但增幅有所降低。不同雨强条件,片蚀出现时间均表现为抽雄期拔节期苗期成熟期;1.0mm/min,2.0mm/min雨强条件,片蚀过程径流总量和产流强度均表现为成熟期苗期拔节期抽雄期;1.5mm/min雨强条件,表现为成熟期拔节期苗期抽雄期。1.0mm/min雨强条件,产沙强度表现为苗期成熟期拔节期抽雄期;1.0mm/min雨强含沙量及1.5mm/min,2.0mm/min雨强含沙量和产沙强度均表现为苗期拔节期成熟期抽雄期。不同雨强下,玉米各生育期片蚀过程中地表产流产沙过程均呈波动变化。     

Assessing Degree of Cook During Corn Nixtamalization: Impact of Processing Variables

Nixtamalization involves cooking and steeping corn in a lime solution, washing the corn (nixtamal), and stone grinding nixtamal to form a corn dough or masa. Masa is used to produce nixtamalized products (corn tortillas, tortilla chips, corn chips, taco shells, etc.) by forming and baking or deepfat frying. The degree of corn kernel cook determines the quality and texture of masa. Response surface methodology (RSM) was used as an experimental design to study the impact of process variables (cook temperature, cook time, initial steep temperature, and steep time) on the degree of cook measured using a Rapid Visco Analyser (RVA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). RSM data exhibited significant (P < 0.005), although not predictive, linear models for RVA peak viscosity (r² = 0.63), setback (r² = 0.61), final viscosity (r² = 0.61), and peak time (r² = 0.57), indicating a dependence of these parameters on nixtamalization conditions. Peak viscosity, setback, and final viscosity increased linearly with steep time. DSC enthalpy (r² = 0.83) and peak temperature (r² = 0.89) of freezedried masa also exhibited significant (P < 0.0001) linear regression models with processing variables. DSC enthalpy increased with an increase in steep time, suggesting that starch is annealed during steeping. This study demonstrated that fundamental starch properties were altered on extended steeping during nixtamalization.     

Effect of Calcium/Magnesium Ratio in Soil on Magnesium Availability,Yield, and Yield Components of Maize

Abstract

The effect of calcium (Ca)/magnesium (Mg) ratio in the soil on Mg availability, yield, and yield components of maize (Zea mays L.) was investigated both in the greenhouse and the field at eight different Ca/Mg ratios ranging from 1∶1 and 8∶1. In the greenhouse, exchangeable Ca/Mg ratios of 2∶1 to 3∶1 gave optimum yield of maize without Mg‐deficiency symptoms. The Ca/Mg ratios in the soil were positively and significantly correlated with Ca content and negatively and significantly correlated with Mg content. The Ca/Mg ratio in the soil was also positively and significantly correlated with observed Ca/Mg ratio in the maize plant tissue. The Ca/Mg ratio in the soil could be a limiting factor for Mg nutrition of the maize plant. Under field conditions, exchangeable Ca/Mg ratios in the soil showed no significant effects on the Ca and Mg contents of the maize earleaf. However, optimum maize yield was obtained at an exchangeable Ca/Mg ratio of 6∶1.     

Dry Matter Loss During Nixtamalization of a White Corn Hybrid: Impact of Processing Parameters

Nixtamalization is the primary step in the production of products such as corn chips, tortilla chips, tacos, and corn tortillas. The process involves cooking and steeping of corn in lime and excess water to produce nixtamal. Commercial nixtamalization results in 5–14% corn solids loss in the liquid generated during cooking‐steeping and washing. Loss of corn solids not only causes economic loss to corn processors but also creates costly waste and wastewater disposal problems. Empirical results show that, besides corn kernel characteristics, processing parameters are critical variables influencing corn solids loss and effluent pH during nixtamalization. This work was designed to systematically study the impact of processing parameters on corn dry matter loss and effluent pH generated during nixtamalization by using response surface methodology. Corn cooking temperature and lime concentration were more critical factors influencing corn solid loss than were cooking and steeping time. In the ranges studied, total dry matter loss increased only up to ≈8 hr of steeping and then leveled off. By optimizing the nixtamalization protocol, effluent dry matter loss can be minimized.     

Rutgers研究人员发现优质蛋白玉米硬粒的秘密

近日,来自罗格斯大学卫克曼微生物研究所主任约基姆·梅辛领导的研究团队报告了使优质蛋白玉米（quality protein maize,QPM）玉米粒更加坚硬的遗传学秘密。这一研究结果发表在2010年7月6日的《美国国家科学院院刊》（PNAS）上。     

Zein Compositions of Mechanically Separated Coarse and Fine Portions of Maize Kernels

Coarse and fine kernel portions from 24 maize inbreds (six grown in two years) and four hybrids were separated by grinding and sifting. Zeins from both portions of all genotypes were analyzed by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). Results agreed, in general, with those of a previous study in which endosperm separation was done manually, suggesting that endosperm fractionation can be done by mechanical means. Compositions of zeins, as revealed by RP-HPLC and SDS-PAGE, support the hypothesis that zeins help determine maize endosperm hardness.     

水稻顺流干燥工艺缓苏过程的研究

系统地分析了水稻顺流干燥工艺中,谷物温度、降水幅度、初始水分对缓苏过程的影响,通过计算机求解扩散模型,揭示出缓苏与提高干燥能力之间的关系。该文求解出的谷物内部传热传质模型的模拟值与实验结果相符。     

花生仁薄层干燥试验研究

通过花生仁薄层干燥试验,探讨了风温、风速、相对湿度等参数对花生仁干燥速率的影响。分析结果表明:风温是影响干燥速率的主要因素。其次是风速,而相对湿度和物料初始水分影响则很小。同时,根据试验分析还建立了干燥速率的数学模型。     

芦苇不同生育期盐碱土离子含量动态变化研究

研究芦苇不同生育期盐碱土离子含量的动态变化,为生物措施治理盐碱土壤的应用提供参考。自制水泥圆柱装置,0.8 m（内径）×0.98 m（高度）20个,用陕西定边盐碱土进行填装,一排10个装置分别种植芦苇,另一排10个装置不种植任何作物,采用土钻在芦苇各生育期取每个装置0—20 cm土样,分别测定了芦苇出苗期、展叶期、开花期、成熟期和枯黄期盐碱土pH,电导率,Ca²⁺,Mg²⁺,K⁺,Na⁺,CO₃^2-,HCO₃^-,Cl^-,SO₄^2-的含量。芦苇在整个生长阶段能促进盐碱土壤的pH值降低0.65个单位,电导率总体下降756.55 μS/cm,Ca²⁺含量减少138.70 mg/kg,SO₄^2-含量减少115.35 mg/kg,Cl^-含量减少57.76 mg/kg,HCO₃^-含量减少57.76 mg/kg,Na⁺含量减少55.58 mg/kg,CO₃^2-含量减少31.66 mg/kg,Mg²⁺含量减少26.93 mg/kg,K⁺含量减少12.65 mg/kg。盐碱土上种植芦苇比不种植芦苇的土壤pH,电导率,Ca²⁺,Mg²⁺,K⁺,Na⁺,CO₃^2-,HCO₃^-,Cl^-,SO₄^2-含量均有所降低,芦苇可能存在富集盐分的能力,在一定程度上能改良陕西定边土壤的盐碱化状况。     

Critical Ratio of Calcium and Boron in Maize Shoot for Optimum Growth

Boron (B) deficiency is widely reported in alkaline calcareous soils of the world, including Pakistan. High calcium (Ca) content in such soils can affect the availability and utilization of B by plants. Effect of applied B at different levels of Ca addition on maize was studied in hydroponics. Four maize cultivars (‘EV-5089’, ‘SWL-2000’, ‘EV-6089’, and ‘Sultan’) were grown at three levels of Ca (0.25 mM, 1 mM, and 2 mM) and two levels of B (0 and 25 μ M). Application of both the nutrients increased shoot dry matter production. However, application of Ca antagonized the B concentration in shoot of four maize cultivars. A curvilinear relationship existed between Ca/B ratio in shoot and relative shoot dry matter of maize cultivars. Implication of using of Ca/B ratio for managing commonly occurring B deficiency in calcareous soils is suggested.     

杉木应压木形成中的显微特征及主要代谢成分变化

为了解析主要代谢成分与杉木(Cunninghamia lanceolata)应压木形成的关系,以3年生直立杉木苗为研究对象,与垂直方向倾斜45°放置30、60和90 d后观察其生长性状并测定木质纤维素含量,使用气相色谱-质谱联用仪(GC-MS)对木质部代谢成分进行鉴定和解析。解剖发现应压木木质部管胞发生变形;化学成分测定发现总木质素和半纤维素含量增加,纤维素含量降低;GC-MS检测出应压木、对应木和直立木中共有成分20种,其中有机酸7种、单糖3种、二糖2种、醇类3种、氨基酸2种、酚类和糖苷类各1种;主成分分析结合显著性检验发现,3个时期应压木和直立木中有11种共有差异代谢物,其中乙醇酸、甘氨酸、核糖酸和棕榈酸在应压木中的含量显著低于对应木和直立木,苹果酸、松醇、肌醇、半乳糖和蔗糖在应压木中的含量显著高于对应木和直立木。本试验结果从代谢角度解释了杉木应压木形成中的生物学变化,可为揭示木材形成的分子机制提供新途径,并为高品质木材的定向培育和木材功能性改良提供理论依据。