Application of Wheat Meal Solvent Retention Capacity Tests Within Soft Wheat Breeding Populations

The solvent retention capacity (SRC) test is a relatively new AACC Approved Method (56‐11) for evaluating soft wheat flour quality. The test measures the ability of flour to retain a set of four solvents (water, 50% sucrose, 5% sodium carbonate, and 5% lactic acid) after centrifugation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the utility of wheat meal sodium carbonate and lactic acid SRC tests and SDS sedimentation volume within three populations of soft spring wheat inbred lines as tools for selecting for improved flour SRC profiles, flour extraction, and cookie and pastry quality. The populations were derived from the crosses Vanna/Penawawa, Kanto 107/IDO488, and M2/IDO470 and were grown in replicated, irrigated trials in 2000 and 2001 near Aberdeen, Idaho. Within each of the three populations, wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC effectively predicted straight‐grade flour sodium carbonate (r = 0.69–0.81) and sucrose SRC (r = 0.74–0.84). Wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC also was negatively correlated with flour extraction and sugar snap cookie diameter. Wheat meal lactic acid SRC predicted straight‐grade flour lactic acid SRC in only one population. In contrast, SDS sedimentation volume predicted straight‐grade flour lactic acid SRC in all three populations (r = 0.74–0.93). Moreover, SDS sedimentation volume and wheat meal sodium carbonate SRC were independent in two of the three populations. This suggests that the SDS sedimentation and sodium carbonate SRC may measure different intrinsic characteristics. Therefore, a combination of sodium carbonate SRC and SDS sedimentation volume analyses of wheat meal may be an efficient approach to selecting toward target SRC profiles, increased flour extraction, and larger sugar snap cookie diameter in soft wheats.     

Exploration of Sugar Functionality in Sugar‐Snap and Wire‐Cut Cookie Baking: Implications for Potential Sucrose Replacement or Reduction

The sugar series—xylose, glucose, fructose, and sucrose—can be used diagnostically to explore the effects of sugar type on differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Rapid Visco‐Analyser (RVA), and cookie baking performance because of the differences in glass‐forming abilities (related to plasticization) and solubility parameters (related to solvent preference) of different sugars. Sugar concentration (% S), total solvent (TS), and dough formulation defined a core experimental design for cookie baking with the four sugar types and two baking methods. Although wire‐cut cookie baking (66% S and 64 TS) showed the same trends as sugar‐snap cookie baking (73% S and 79 TS) for diameter, height, and moisture content, the wire‐cut formulation enabled greater discrimination among the effects of different sugar types on dough and cookie responses. Use of two different crystal sizes of sucrose confirmed the dominant impact of both gluten development during dough mixing and starch pasting during cookie baking on collapse: the greater rate of dissolution of smaller sucrose crystals resulted in greater surface crack for sugar‐snap cookies, and lower height for wire‐cut cookies. Because the historical definition of an “excellent quality cookie flour” is based on the performance of a flour in a cookie formulated with sucrose, the effect of sugar type on cookie making is to transform the apparent baking performance of a flour. Whereas formulation with sucrose optimizes the flour performance for cookie baking, formulation with xylose exaggerates the worst aspects of cookie flour functionality and makes even the best cookie flour look like a “poor quality cookie flour”. Use of solvent retention capacity (SRC), DSC, RVA, and wire‐cut cookie baking as predictive research tools demonstrated that identification of a flour with an optimized SRC pattern is the key to successful mitigation of the detrimental effects of sucrose replacement on cookie processing and product attributes.     

Modeling End‐Use Quality in U.S. Soft Wheat Germplasm

End‐use quality in soft wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) can be assessed by a wide array of measurements, generally categorized into grain, milling, and baking characteristics. Samples were obtained from four U.S. regional nurseries. Selected parameters included test weight, kernel hardness, kernel size, kernel diameter, wheat protein, polyphenol oxidase activity, flour yield, break flour yield, flour ash content, milling score, flour protein content, flour SDS sedimentation volume, flour swelling volume, Rapid Visco Analyzer peak paste viscosity, solvent retention capacity (SRC) parameters, total and water‐extractable arabinoxylan (TAX and WEAX, respectively), and cookie diameter. The objectives were to model cookie diameter and lactic acid SRC as well as to compare exceptionally performing varieties for each quality parameter. Cookie diameter and lactic acid SRC were modeled by using multiple regression analyses and all of the aforementioned quality parameters. Cookie diameter was positively associated with peak paste viscosity and was negatively associated with or modeled by kernel hardness, flour protein content, sodium carbonate SRC, lactic acid SRC, and water SRC. Lactic acid SRC was positively modeled by break flour yield, milling score, flour SDS sedimentation volume, and sucrose SRC and was negatively modeled by flour protein content. Exceptionally high‐ and low‐performing varieties were selected on the basis of their responses to the aforementioned characteristics in each nursery. High‐ and low‐performing varieties exhibited notably wide variation in kernel hardness, break flour yield, milling score, sodium carbonate SRC, sucrose SRC, water SRC, TAX content, and cookie diameter. This high level of variation in variety performance can facilitate selection for improved quality based on exceptional performance in one or more of these traits. The models described allow a more focused approach toward predicting soft wheat quality.     

Assessing Environmental Influences on Solvent Retention Capacities of Two Soft White Spring Wheat Cultivars

The solvent retention capacity test (SRC) (AACC Approved Method 56‐11) of flour is used to evaluate multiple aspects of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) quality including pentosan content, starch damage, gluten strength, and general water retention based on the ability of flour to retain a range of solvents. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of grain production environment in general and crop irrigation and fertility management in particular on SRC of soft wheat flour, and to evaluate the ability of SRC to predict end‐use quality across diverse environments. Two soft white spring wheat cultivars ‘Pomerelle’ and ‘Centennial’ were produced in a range of irrigated and rain‐fed production environments. SRC profiles and milling and baking quality parameters were measured. In a two‐year study at Aberdeen, ID, with two late‐season irrigation management regimes and two crop nitrogen fertility treatments, only wheat genotype significantly affected flour SRC. In two‐year studies at Tetonia, ID, one conducted under rain‐fed conditions and the other under irrigation, additional fertilizer applied at anthesis did not affect SRC. Correlations among quality parameters were determined using the Aberdeen and Tetonia flour samples, as well as samples of the same genotypes grown in fertility trials under rain‐fed conditions at Havre and Bozeman, MT, and under irrigation at Bozeman. Patterns of correlations among SRC values were similar for both genotypes. Grain test weight was negatively correlated with sodium carbonate and sucrose SRC of both genotypes. Flour protein was strongly positively correlated with sucrose and lactic acid SRC of both genotypes. The optimal regression models for predicting sugar snap cookie diameter (AACC Approved Method 10‐52) as a function of protein, SRC, flour extraction, and kernel hardness were different for the two cultivars. SRC evaluations of flours from these trials were consistent with large genotype and environment effects, yet minimal genotype × environment interaction. This suggests that selection among genotypes within an environment will produce a gain‐from‐selection observable in multiple and diverse environments.     

Functional and Nutritional Characteristics of Soft Wheat Grown in No‐Till and Conventional Cropping Systems

The effects of no‐till versus conventional farming practices were evaluated on soft wheat functional and nutritional characteristics, including kernel physical properties, whole wheat composition, antioxidant activity, and end‐product quality. Soft white winter wheat cultivar ORCF 102 was evaluated over a two‐year period from three long‐term replicated no‐till versus conventional tillage studies in Oregon. Wheat from the no‐till cropping systems generally had greater test weight, kernel diameter, and kernel weight and had softer kernels compared with wheat from the conventional tillage systems. Compared with the conventional systems, no‐till whole wheat flour had lower protein and SDS sedimentation volume. Ash content as well as most minerals measured (calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, and zinc), except for manganese and phosphorus, were generally slightly lower in no‐till than in conventional wheat. Whole wheat flour from the no‐till cropping systems generally had slightly lower total phenolic content and total antioxidant capacity. Milling properties, including flour yield, break flour yield, and mill score, were not affected by tillage systems. Refined flour from no‐till systems had lower protein, SDS sedimentation volume, and lactic acid and sucrose solvent retention capacities compared with flour from conventional tillage. No‐till wheat generally had greater sugar‐snap cookie diameter than conventionally tilled wheat. In conclusion, no‐till soft white winter wheat generally had slightly reduced nutritional properties (protein, ash, most minerals, and total antioxidant content) compared with wheat from conventionally tilled systems, and it had equivalent or sometimes superior functional properties for baking cookie‐type products.     

Solvent Retention Capacities of Indian Wheats and Their Relationship with Cookie‐Making Quality

Ninety‐two wheat genotypes including 50 cultivars released in India and 42 germplasm lines were subjected to solvent retention capacity (SRC) tests using 1 g of flour and 1 g of whole meal to see the relationship with cookie‐making quality and the utility in breeding programs. Very high negative correlations (P < 0.001) were observed between cookie diameter and spread factor and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC), and solvent retention capacities of both flour and whole meal samples. Multiple regression analysis showed that AWRC explained 43.8%, sodium carbonate SRC 27.3%, lactic acid SRC 15.1%, and protein content 13.8% of the total variability (multiple r = 0.87) in cookie diameter. Total variability (multiple r = 0.85) in spread factor was explained 40.3% by AWRC, 27.4% by SODSRC, 14.5% by LASRC, and 17.8% by protein content. When the technique was further used to reduce the number of parameters contributing to cookie diameter, AWRC explained 67.2% of the total variability (multiple r = 0.85) and the rest by lactic acid SRC and protein content. Surprisingly, multiple regression analysis of whole meal samples exhibited that lactic acid SRC and sodium carbonate SRC explained 88 and 12%, respectively, of the total variability (multiple r = 0.76) in cookie diameter and 78 and 22%, respectively, of the total variability (multiple r = 0.71) in spread factor. Among the soft wheat flour samples selected based on W > 7.70 cm, pentosan content as revealed by sucrose SRC explained 87.7% of the total variability (multiple r = 0.54) of cookie diameter and 83.8% of total variability (multiple r = 0.52) in spread factor. Clustering of genotypes based on SRC profiles using both flour and whole meal produced clusters with similar average cookie diameter and spread factor. The data clearly demonstrate that whole meal tests can be used in screening the recombinant lines as well as in selecting desirable genotypes for making crosses to enhance cookie‐making quality.     

Distribution of Total,Water‐Unextractable,and Water‐Extractable Arabinoxylans in Wheat Flour Mill Streams

Arabinoxylans are a minor but important constituent in wheat that affects bread quality, foam stability, batter viscosity, and sugar snap cookie diameter. Therefore, it is important to determine the distribution of arabinoxylans in flour mill streams to better formulate flour blends. Thirty‐one genetically pure grain lots representing six wheat classifications common to the western U.S. were milled on a Miag Multomat pilot mill, and 10 flour mill streams were collected from each. A two‐way ANOVA indicated that mill streams were a greater source of variation compared to grain lots for total arabinoxylans (TAX), water‐unextractable arabinoxylans (WUAX), and water‐extractable arabinoxylans (WEAX). TAX and WUAX were highly correlated with ash at r = 0.94 and r = 0.94, respectively; while the correlation for WEAX and ash decreased in magnitude at r = 0.60. However, the 5th middlings mill streams exhibited disparity between TAX and ash content as well as between WUAX and ash content. This may indicate that TAX and WUAX in mill streams are not always the result of bran contamination. Cumulative extraction curves for TAX, WUAX and WEAX revealed increasing gradients of arabinoxylans parallel to extraction rate. Therefore, arabinoxylans may be an indicator of flour refinement.     

Laboratory Milling Method for Whole Grain Soft Wheat Flour Evaluation

Whole grain wheat products are a growing portion of the foods marketed in North America, yet few standard methods exist to evaluate whole grain wheat flour. This study evaluated two flour milling systems to produce whole grain soft wheat flour for a wire‐cut cookie, a standard soft wheat product. A short‐flow experimental milling system combined with bran grinding in a Quadro Comil produced a whole grain soft wheat flour that made larger diameter wire‐cut cookies than whole grain flour from a long‐flow experimental milling system. Average cookie diameter of samples milled on the short‐flow mill was greater than samples milled on the long‐flow system by 1 cm/two cookies (standard error 0.09 cm). The long‐flow milling system resulted in more starch damage in the flour milling than did the short‐flow system. The short‐flow milling system produced flours that were useful for discriminating among wheat cultivars and is an accessible tool for evaluating whole grain soft wheat quality.     

Relationship Between Soft Wheat Flour Physicochemical Composition and Cookie‐Making Performance

Nowadays in Argentina, cookies, crackers, and cakes are made of flour obtained from bread wheat with additives or enzymes that decrease the gluten strength but increase production costs. The present research work aims to study the relationship between flour physicochemical composition (particle size average [PSA], protein, damaged starch [DS], water soluble pentosans [WSP], total pentosans [TP], and gluten), alkaline water retention capacities behavior, solvent retention capacities profile (SRC) and cookie‐making performance in a set of 51 adapted soft wheat lines with diverse origin to identify better flour parameters for predicting cookie quality. Cookie factor (CF) values were 5.06–7.56. High and significant negative correlations between sucrose SRC (–0.68), water SRC (–0.65), carbonate SRC (–0.59), and CF were found, followed by lactic SRC that presented a low negative but significant correlation (r = –0.35). The flour components DS (r = –0.67), WSP (r = –0.49), and TP (r = –0.4) were negatively associated to CF. PSA showed a negative correlation with CF (r = –0.43). Protein and gluten were the flour components that affected cookie hardness, but no significant correlation were found with pentosan or DS content. A prediction equation for CF was developed. Sucrose SRC, PSA, and DS could be used to predict 68% of the variation in cookie diameter. The cluster analysis was conducted to assess differences in flour quality parameters among genotypes based on CF. Clusters 1 and 4 were typified by lower CF (5.70 and 5.23, respectively), higher DS, pentosan content, and SRC values. Cluster 2 with a relative good CF (6.47) and Cluster 3 with the best cookie quality, high CF (7.32) and low firmness, and the lowest DS, TP, WSP content, and sucrose SRC values.     

Novel Ha Locus,Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h,Affects Soft White Spring Wheat Milling and Baking

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grain hardness is controlled by the Hardness locus on chromosome 5D which consists of the linked genes Puroindoline a and b (Pina and Pinb, respectively). The Ha locus haplotype, Pina‐D1a/Pinb‐D1a, is found in all soft hexaploid wheats. While Pin diversity is low among soft wheats, several novel Ha haplotypes were reported among synthetic hexaploid wheats created using the D genome donor, Aegilops tauschii. One haplotype, Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h, confers a soft phenotype with increased grain hardness over Pina‐D1a/Pinb‐D1a wheats. Here, the Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h haplotype was backcrossed into the soft white spring wheat cultivars ‘Vanna’ and ‘Alpowa’. Then the effect of the two haplotypes on soft wheat milling and baking quality was compared. The effects of the Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h Ha locus haplotype were similar in both the Vanna and Alpowa backgrounds. The Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h lines had significantly more large and fewer small flour particles in both backgrounds and 1.51% higher flour yield in the Alpowa background. The Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h haplotype group was not associated with any consistent differences in solvent retention capacities or sugar snap cookie quality parameters. The results indicate that the Pina‐D1c/Pinb‐D1h haplotype could be used to modify soft wheat milling properties without substantial effects on baking quality.     

Influence of Kernel Size and Shriveling on Soft Wheat Milling and Baking Quality

Small kernels of soft wheat are sometimes considered to be harder than larger kernels and to have inferior milling and baking characteristics. This study distinguished between kernel size and kernel shriveling. Nine cultivars were separated into large, medium, and small kernels that had no shriveling. Eleven cultivars were separated into sound, moderate, and severely shriveled kernels. Shriveling greatly decreased the amount of flour produced during milling. It adversely affected all other milling quality characteristics (ash content, endosperm separation index, and friability). Shriveled kernels produced flour that had inferior soft wheat baking qualities (smaller cookie diameter and higher alkaline water retention capacity). In contrast, test weight and milling qualities were independent of kernel size. Small, nonshriveled kernels had slightly better baking quality (larger cookie diameter) than larger nonshriveled kernels. Small kernels were softer than large kernels (measured by break flour yield, particle size index, and flour particle size). Small nonshriveled kernels did not have diminished total flour yield potential or other reduced flour milling characteristics. Those observations suggest a possibility of separating small sound kernels from small shriveled kernels to improve flour yield and the need to improve dockage testing estimation techniques to distinguish between small shriveled and small nonshriveled kernels.     

Potential Sugar Reduction in Cookies Formulated with Sucrose Alternatives

Sugar reduction in low‐moisture cookies is a challenge for the baking industry, because detrimental gluten development and starch gelatinization/pasting increase as sugar concentration decreases. In this study, sucrose and two healthful carbohydrate oligomers (i.e., isomaltulose and Mylose 351 syrup/Glucodry 314 powder) were used to explore the effects of the sucrose alternatives on results from solvent retention capacity (SRC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), rapid viscoanalysis (RVA), and AACC International wire‐cut cookie baking. Wheat flour SRC results indicated lower swelling of solvent‐accessible arabinoxylans in isomaltulose solution, but higher swelling in Glucodry 314 and Mylose 351 solutions, compared with that in sucrose solution. DSC and RVA results showed retardation of wheat flour starch gelatinization and pasting onset, respectively, both in the order water < Glucodry 314 ≤ Mylose 351 < sucrose ≤ isomaltulose. Isomaltulose, when predissolved, exhibited cookie‐baking responses similar to those for sucrose, suggesting that this sugar could be used successfully as a sucrose alternative to produce wire‐cut cookies with lower glycemic impact. Cookie baking with blends of sucrose and Glucodry 314 alleviated a cookie‐geometry issue observed for 100% sucrose replacement by Glucodry 314, suggesting that Glucodry 314 or Mylose 351 could partially replace sucrose for sugar‐reduction purposes.     

Characterization of a Unique “Super Soft” Kernel Trait in Wheat

Kernel texture in wheat (Triticum sp.) is central to end‐use quality and utilization. Here we report the discovery of a novel soft kernel trait in soft white winter wheat (T. aestivum L.). Two heritable kernel phenotypes were selected among F₃‐derived sibs, hereafter designated “normal soft” (wild‐type) and “super soft.” Normal soft lines exhibited single kernel characterization system (SKCS) hardness index (HI) values typical of soft wheat (HI ≈ 20), whereas the super soft lines were unusually soft (HI ≈ 5). Under some environments, individual super soft lines exhibited HI values as low as HI = –4. The super soft trait was manifested in reduced SKCS kernel texture and higher break flour yields, with some increase in sodium carbonate SRC (solvent retention capacity) values and sponge cake volumes. Straight‐grade flour yield, flour ash, milling score, and cookie diameter were largely unaffected. With the possible exception of the sodium carbonate SRC values, we observed no indication that the super soft trait conferred any negative aspects to commercial soft wheat quality. As such, the super soft trait may provide wheat breeders with new opportunities to modify the end‐use quality of wheat.     

A Rapid,High Throughput Micro Sugar‐Snap Cookie Quality Test Procedure Using Asymmetrical Centrifugal Mixing

A modified AACC 45‐g flour cookie procedure using asymmetrical centrifuge mixing as a replacement for conventional mixing has been developed. Ingredients are added to a pin cup in the same proportion as in the Approved Method 10‐50D (AACC 2000) sugar‐snap cookie test and mixed in a single step for 15 sec at 2,500 rpm. The dough is then processed and the resulting cookies are scored according to the AACC Approved Method 10–52 40‐g flour micro cookie test method. Cookies produced from a control cookie flour and four commercial soft wheat flours with the new mixing method did not show the characteristic surface cracking patterns normally obtained with conventional three‐stage mixing. However, with the exception of one spread value, no significant differences in spread, thickness, or the ratio of spread to thickness were evident when results were compared with those obtained with the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method using a Hobart mixer equipped with a paddle. Cookies produced from two sets of advanced soft white spring wheat breeder lines, including control cultivars, using the asymmetrical centrifuge mixing procedure were also very comparable in spread, thickness, and ratio compared with those produced using 225 g of flour in the AACC Approved Method. Reproducibility of test results for all cookie parameters for both commercial and advanced plant breeder samples were comparable to the AACC Approved Method 10‐50D 225‐g flour test method. The very short mixing time and the ability to quickly clean or use multiple pin cups should allow very high throughput of flour samples relative to the use of conventional mixers for cookie testing.     

Use of Solvent Retention Capacity Profile to Predict the Quality of Triticale Flours

The solvent retention capacity test (SRC) was used to evaluate flour functionality for end use applications and select wheat for production of flour with required functionality, but there is little information about SRC test application on triticale flour quality. The ability of flour to retain a set of four solvents produces a flour quality profile for predicting bakery performance. The objective of this study was to evaluate the capacity of SRC and its micro test to determine the potential quality of 25 triticale flours, as well as studying the relationship between the SRC parameters and flour chemical composition. The SRC parameters of triticale flours were correlated with the flour components that have been proposed by the method: sucrose SRC‐pentosan (r = 0.57), carbonate SRC‐damaged starch (r = 0.80), lactic SRC‐glutelin (r = 0.42), water SRC‐all hydrophilic constituents (damaged starch [r = 0.72], protein [r = 0.61], glutelin [r = 0.66], pentosan [r = 0.46]). Triticale flours have shown higher water and sodium carbonate SRC, similar sucrose SRC, and lower lactic SRC values than published results of typical flours used for cookie production. Summarizing, the high level of association found between SRC and micro SRC parameters with flour composition and quality flour tests evidence that either the SRC profile or the micro test SRC could be used to determine the potential quality of triticale flours.     

Solvent Retention Capacity (SRC) Testing of Wheat Flour: Principles and Value in Predicting Flour Functionality in Different Wheat‐Based Food Processes and in Wheat Breeding—A Review

Solvent retention capacity (SRC) technology, its history, principles, and applications are reviewed. Originally, SRC testing was created and developed for evaluating soft wheat flour functionality, but it has also been shown to be applicable to evaluating flour functionality for hard wheat products. SRC is a solvation test for flours that is based on the exaggerated swelling behavior of component polymer networks in selected individual diagnostic solvents. SRC provides a measure of solvent compatibility for the three functional polymeric components of flour—gluten, damaged starch, and pentosans—which in turn enables prediction of the functional contribution of each of these flour components to overall flour functionality and resulting finished‐product quality. The pattern of flour SRC values for the four diagnostic SRC solvents (water, dilute aqueous lactic acid, dilute aqueous sodium carbonate, and concentrated aqueous sucrose solutions), rather than any single individual SRC value, has been shown to be critical to various successful end‐use applications. Moreover, a new predictive SRC parameter, the gluten performance index (GPI), defined as GPI = lactic acid/(sodium carbonate + sucrose) SRC values, has been found to be an even better predictor of the overall performance of flour glutenin in the environment of other modulating networks of flour polymers. SRC technology is a unique diagnostic tool for predicting flour functionality, and its applications in soft wheat breeding, milling, and baking are increasing markedly as a consequence of many successful, recently published demonstrations of its extraordinary power and scope.     

Influence of Amylose Content on Cookie and Sponge Cake Quality and Solvent Retention Capacities in Wheat Flour

Reduced amylose wheat (Triticum æstivum L.) produces better quality noodles and bread less prone to going stale, while little is known about the relationships between amylose content and the quality of soft wheat baking products such as sugar snap cookies (SSC) and Japanese sponge cakes (JSC). Near‐isogenic lines developed from wheat cultivar Norin 61, differing in their level of granule‐bound starch synthase (Wx protein) activity, were used to produce wheat grains and ultimately flours of different amylose contents. These were tested with regard to their effect on soft wheat baking quality and solvent retention capacities (SRC). Amylose content was strongly correlated to cookie diameter (r = 0.969, P < 0.001) and cake volume (r = 0.976, P < 0.001), indicating that the soft wheat baking quality associated with SSC diameter and JSC volume were improved by an incremental increases in amylose content. Among the four kinds of SRC tests (water, sodium carbonate, sucrose and lactic acid), the water SRC test showed the highest correlation with amylose content, SSC diameter, and JSC volume. When the regression analysis was conducted between the nonwaxy and partial waxy isogenic lines that are available in commercial markets, only water SRC was significantly correlated to amylose content (r = –0.982, P < 0.001) among of four SRC tests. This suggests that, unlike udon noodle quality, high‐amylose content is indispensable in improving soft wheat baking quality, a process requiring less water retention capacity.     

Exploring Relationships Between Pancake Quality and Grain and Flour Functionality in Soft Wheats

The objective of this study was to observe the influence of differences in genotype (variety) and protein concentration on batter flow and pancake making performance of a collection of soft white winter wheats. Wheats were chosen to express contrasting absorption characteristics and oxidative gelation potentials. Pancakes were processed with two formulations, one (“old”) with egg, soy, and dairy and one (“new”) without. Pancake performance was compared with grain, milling, flour, solvent retention capacity (SRC), pasting, and oxidative gelation characteristics of the flours. Kernel texture, break flour yield, carbonate SRC, and lactic acid SRC were not significantly associated with pancake performance for either formulation. ANOVA showed that flour protein concentration had a dominant effect on pancake batter flow and dimensions. Flour protein concentration affected pancakes more than flour protein quality (lactic acid SRC). Water and sucrose SRCs and Rapid Visco Analyzer pasting temperature were negatively correlated with pancake batter flow and dimensions. Pasting temperature was significantly and positively correlated with flour protein, suggesting that correlations with pancake properties might be simply a cross‐correlation with protein concentration. Notably, and in contrast to our hypothesis, oxidative gelation potential had no relationship with pancake processing or quality.     

A Comprehensive Survey of Soft Wheat Grain Quality in U.S. Germplasm

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) quality is dependent upon both genetic and environmental factors, which work in concert to produce specific grain, milling, flour, and baking characteristics. This study surveyed all of the 132 soft wheat varieties (cultivars and advanced breeding lines) grown in the U.S. regional nursery system, which encompassed the three main soft wheat producing regions of the United States (eastern and southern soft red winter and western soft white). The quality parameters included test weight, kernel hardness, weight, and diameter, wheat and flour protein, polyphenol oxidase, break flour yield, flour yield, flour ash, milling score, flour swelling volume, flour SDS sedimentation volume, solvent retention capacity (SRC) for water, sodium carbonate, sucrose, and lactic acid, Rapid Visco Analyzer peak pasting viscosity, and cookie diameter. High levels of variation were observed among varieties, regions, and specific environments, with environment being in general a much greater source of variation than varieties. Variety was observed to have a relatively stronger influence on wheat quality in the western nurseries, compared with the eastern and southern regions, where location effects had a stronger impact on overall wheat quality. The greater influence of variety was particularly notable for kernel hardness in the western nurseries. Kernel hardness also varied considerably as a result of environment. For the two soft red winter wheat nurseries, the western U.S. environment produced substantially harder kernels (37–40) compared with the same varieties grown in eastern U.S. locations (15–20). Intertrait quality relationships were observed to be unique to the specific nursery and germplasm in which they were studied, and these relationships were not consistent across nurseries. Nevertheless, on average, soft wheat quality was fairly similar across the United States, indicating that breeding and testing models have been successful in achieving a relatively uniform target for quality. However, many traits showed high levels of variability among varieties, suggesting that a greater level of selection for end‐use quality would benefit end users by increasing consistency and reducing variability. The often large role of environment (location) in quality indicates that end users must be assiduous in their origination and grain procurement. Clearly, “nursery mean” quality does not reflect the potential that can be obtained, as reflected by a few exceptional soft wheat varieties.     

Relationships of Quality Characteristics with Size‐Exclusion HPLC Chromatogram of Protein Extract in Soft White Winter Wheats

This study investigated relationships between molecular weight distributions of unreduced grain proteins and grain, flour, and end‐use quality characteristics of soft white winter wheats grown in Oregon. Absorbance area and area percentage values of protein fractions separated by size‐exclusion HPLC (SE‐HPLC) showed significant correlations with quality characteristics, indicating associations of molecular weight distributions of proteins with quality characteristics. Specifically, high molecular weight polymeric protein fractions appeared to have a detrimental effect on soft wheat quality. This was shown by significant positive correlations with single kernel hardness index, and mixograph water absorption and tolerance, and negative correlations with break flour yield, cookie diameter, and cake volume. Higher proportions of soluble monomeric protein fraction eluted after the main gliadin peak, were associated with soft wheat quality due to negative associations with single kernel hardness index and mixograph water absorption and tolerance, and positive associations with break flour yield, cookie diameter, and cake volume. Calibration models were developed by the application of multivariate analyses to the SE‐HPLC data. These models explained >90% of the variation in mixograph water absorption and cookie diameter and thickness.