Haemosporidian infection in captive masked bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), an endangered subspecies of the northern bobwhite quail

The avian haemosporidian parasites (phylum Apicomplexa) are taxonomically diverse and cosmopolitan in distribution; infecting most bird families. Sources of concern are reports of clinical haemosporidian infections in birds kept as part of zoo and aviary collections. Recently, severe and acute mortality episodes have been reported in masked bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), an endangered subspecies from the American Southwest. Two hundred and five eggs of the captive flock held in Arivaca, Arizona, were hatched at a zoo in the American Southwest. Thirty-four sub-adult or adult animals had lesions associated with tissue phases of haemoparasites, especially vasculitis, ventricular leiomyositis and ulcerative pododermatitis. Molecular techniques applied to blood collected from the zoo's last twelve remaining animals resulted in the detection of a Plasmodium juxtanucleare-like and Haemoproteus sp. parasites. A Raven (Corvus corax), in a contiguous exhibit, was positive for the same P. juxtanucleare-like parasite, but remained asymptomatic for three years following detection. These findings indicate that other birds in the exhibit within the zoo premises could act as reservoirs. We conclude that haemosporidian infections could be a factor in the demise of the captive masked bobwhite quails housed at the zoo. We suggest that active surveillance for haemoporidian parasites should be incorporated as a precaution to ex situ conservation efforts of susceptible endangered species.     

Effects of tetracycline and zinc on selection of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) sequence type 398 in pigs

An in vivo experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of tetracycline and zinc on pig colonization and transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) sequence type (ST) 398. Eight piglets naturally colonized with MRSA ST398 and 8 MRSA-negative piglets of the same age and breed were assigned to three groups treated with tetracycline and zinc (Group 1), zinc (Group 2) or tetracycline alone (Group 3) and one non-treated group (Group 4), each containing two MRSA-positive and two MRSA-negative animals. Two additional non-treated control groups composed of only MRSA-positive (Group 5) and MRSA-negative (Group 6) animals were used to check for stability of MRSA carriage status. Nasal swabs and environmental wipes were collected on Days 0, 7, 14, and 21, and the occurrence of MRSA in each sample was quantified by bacteriological counts on Brilliance? MRSA agar. Significantly higher nasal MRSA counts were observed in the zinc-treated (p=0.015) and tetracycline-treated (p=0.008) animals compared to the non-treated animals. Environmental MRSA counts appeared to increase over time in Groups 1 and 2 but such an increase was not statistically significant. MRSA-negative animals housed with MRSA-positive animals became positive in all groups, whereas the carriage status of the animals in Groups 5 and 6 did not change. This study demonstrates that feed supplemented with tetracycline or zinc increases the numbers of MRSA ST398 in the nasal cavity of pigs. Transmission of MRSA from positive to negative animals housed within the same pen was not influenced by exposure to these agents.     

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) contamination of retail pork

Recent reports of isolation of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from food animals have raised concern about the potential for foodborne transmission. This study evaluated the prevalence of MRSA contamination of retail pork from 4 Canadian provinces. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from 31/402 [7.7%, 95% confidence interval (CI): 5.5% to 10.7%] of samples. Adjusted for clustering at the provincial level, the prevalence was 5.8% (95% CI% 2.2% to 14.4%). The most common clone was Canadian epidemic MRSA (CMRSA)-5 (12/31, 39%), which has been widely identified in horses and horse personnel, but not in pigs. Ten of the 31 (32%) isolates were nontypable by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and belonged to spa 539/t034, a clone that is associated with food animals internationally. Nine (29%) isolates were CMRSA-2, a common human epidemic clone that has been found in pigs in Canada. While the relevance of contamination of retail meat is currently unclear, further study is required to determine if food may be a source of infection.     

Survey of tuberculin testing in Swedish zoos.

Tuberculin test results from 214 animals in three Swedish zoos, tested between the years 1993 and 2000, were compiled from a questionnaire sent out to zoo veterinarians. Comparative testing with bovine and avian tuberculin was used on various sites of injection. A total of five skin test reactors were found: three cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) in one zoo and two tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) in another zoo. Postmortem culture from one of the tapirs revealed growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, and a stamping out policy was adopted in the herd. Tuberculosis in the primates was ruled out by further investigations. Zoo veterinarians should try to adopt a common scheme for the regular testing of zoo animals to improve the diagnostic ability and comparison of results between institutions.     

Seroprevalences of antibodies to Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii in zoo animals

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan parasite that causes neuromuscular disease in dogs and abortions in cattle. Little is known about the prevalence of antibodies to this parasite in zoo animals. Sera from 556 animals, from 13 Czech and Slovak zoos were tested for antibodies to N. caninum and Toxoplasma gondii by indirect fluorescent antibody test. Antibodies to N. caninum were found in 31 of 556 zoo animals (5.6%), representing 18 of 114 species tested: Eurasian wolf (Canis lupus lupus), Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), fennec (Vulpes zerda), cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yaguarondi), Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Indian lion (Panthera leo goojratensis), fisher (Martes pennanti), blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), European bison (Bison bonasus), lechwe (Kobus leche), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer), eland (Taurotragus oryx), sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei gratus), Thorold's deer (Cervus albirostris), Eastern elk (C. elaphus canadensis), Vietnam sika deer (C. nippon pseudaxis) and Père David's deer (Elaphurus davidianus). Titres ranged from 1:40 to 1:2560. The highest prevalence 50% was found in family mustelidae of the order carnivora. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 193 of 556 zoo animals (34.7%) representing 72 of 114 species tested, with titres ranging from 1:40 to 1:40960. The highest prevalence 100% was found in families: hyaenidae, mustelidae, ursidae and viveridae of the order carnivora. The results of this study indicate that zoo animals have more exposure to T. gondii than to N. caninum. It is the first report of seroprevalence of antibodies to N. caninum in European zoo animals.     

Cluster of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in a small animal intensive care unit

CASE DESCRIPTION: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was isolated from the tracheostomy tube of an 18-month-old castrated male Golden Retriever in the intensive care unit (ICU) of the Ontario Veterinary College. This prompted an investigation of MRSA colonization in other animals in the ICU. CLINICAL FINDINGS: On day 1 of the investigation, MRSA was isolated from nasal swabs obtained from 2 of 10 animals (2/7 dogs and 0/3 cats), including the index case. Subsequently, MRSA was isolated from 3 of 12 animals on day 9; 3 of 9 animals on day 13; and none of 14, 5, and 6 animals on day 20, 27, and 78, respectively. Overall, MRSA was isolated from 6 of 26 (23%) animals during the outbreak period (4/22 dogs and 2/4 cats). The apparent incidence of MRSA acquisition in the ICU from days 1 through 13 was 20% (5/25 animals). No clinical signs of MRSA infections developed. All isolates were indistinguishable from one another. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME: Infection-control measures including active surveillance of all animals in the ICU, barrier precautions, and hand hygiene were used to control the apparent outbreak. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Methicillin-resistant S aureus is an emerging problem in veterinary medicine. Intensive care units may be at particular risk for periodic outbreaks of colonization and disease. The outbreak of this report highlights the potential for clinically inapparent transmission of MRSA within a facility; infection-control measures that might facilitate MRSA eradication should be considered in ICU settings.     

Non-typhi Salmonella serovars found in Mexican zoo animals

The aim of the present study was to determine the bacteriological prevalence of subclinical non-typhi Salmonella infections in zoo animals and to determine the most frequently isolated serovars of the bacteria. A total of 267 samples were analyzed, including fecal samples from zoo animals and rodents, insects (Musca domestica and Periplaneta americana) and samples of the zoo animal's food. Salmonella was detected in 11.6% of the samples analyzed. Characterization of the isolates was performed with serotyping and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. The following serovars were isolated: S. San Diego, S. Oranienburg, S. Weltevreden, S. Braenderup, S. Derby, S. 6,7, H:en x:- and S. 3,10, H:r:-. The isolates showed seven pulsed-field gel electrophoresis patterns with a Jaccard coefficient ?0.75 indicating a possible common origin. The prevalence of asymptomatic infections caused by Salmonella spp. in zoo animals was high. These findings demonstrate the diversity of Salmonella serovars in several captive wild animal species.     

The influence of dietary tannin supplementation on digestive performance in captive black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

Free-ranging browsers such as the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) consume a diet that contains tannins, whereas the diets offered to them in captivity consist mostly of items known to contain hardly any such secondary plant compounds. Tannins could have potentially beneficial effects, including the chelation of dietary iron (iron storage disease is a common problem in black rhinos). Here, we tested the acceptance, and the consequences on digestion variables, of a low-dose tannin supplementation in captive animals. Eight black rhinoceroses from three zoological institutions were used. Faecal output was quantified by total faecal collection. Diets fed were regular zoo diets supplemented with either tannic acid (T, hydrolysable tannin) or quebracho (Q, condensed tannins); overall tannin source intake increased at 5-15 g/kg dry matter (DM) in relation to regular zoo diets. Adaptation periods to the new diets were >2 months. Additional data were taken from one hitherto unpublished study. Data were compared to measurements in the same animals on their regular zoo diets. All animals accepted the new diets without hesitation. There was no influence of tannin supplementation on digestion coefficients of DM and its constituents, or faecal concentrations of short-chain fatty acids or lactate. Water intake did not increase during tannin supplementation. Should the inclusion of dietary tannin sources be an objective in the development of diets for captive rhinoceroses, moderate doses such as used in this study are unlikely to cause relevant depressions of digestive efficiency and will not interfere with bacterial fermentation in a relevant way.     

应用分配通道提高动物园场地利用率

动物园有限的面积与园中野生动物对环境条件的需求之间往往存在巨大的差距。应用分配通道提高动物园场地利用率可以缓解这一矛盾,并最终有利于提高动物福利。分配通道的应用可以划分为4个阶段,其发展趋势是将动物园中的所有展区联结成网络,从而使每种动物的生活和展示空间逐步接近动物生态领地模型,使动物园中有限的场地条件能够满足圈养野生动物的环境需求。     

A survey of Blastocystis sp. in livestock,pets, and zoo animals in Japan

The prevalence of Blastocystis sp. was examined in fecal samples collected from cattle, pigs, dogs, and a variety of zoo animals (primates, carnivores, herbivores, pheasants, and ducks) by direct observation of fresh fecal suspensions or cultured materials, using light microscopy. The cattle and pigs were randomly sampled from 11 and 12 commercial farms, respectively, located in the western region of Japan. The dog material used in this study was obtained from pets housed in an animal shelter in the city of Osaka. Zoo animals were chosen based on housing conditions that minimized the possibility of intra-zoo transmission of the organism. The prevalence rate among the groups varied greatly. A high prevalence of infection was observed in the farm animal group, ranging from 95% (58/61) in pigs to 71% (39/55) in cattle, whereas the dog fecal samples were completely free of the organism. Prevalence of the organism in the zoo animal were 85% (29/34) in primates, 80% (8/10) in pheasants, 56% (9/16) in ducks, and 0% (0/58) in various carnivores and herbivores. Among the zoo animals infected with Blastocystis, eight species of primates, eight species of pheasants, and four species of ducks were confirmed as new hosts. Since Blastocystis organisms isolated from various animals were morphologically indistinguishable from Blastocystis hominis by light microscopy, further genomic studies are required for analysis of the zoonotic potential or etiological significance of these isolates.     

Suspected transmission of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus between domestic pets and humans in veterinary clinics and in the household

OBJECTIVE: To describe MRSA infection and colonization in household pets, and transmission of MRSA between animals and humans. METHODS: MRSA infection and colonization in household pets and human contacts were evaluated during investigations initiated after identification of MRSA infection or colonization of a household pet in order to determine if there had been transmission between animals and humans. All MRSA isolates were screened for Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL) genes by use of polymerase chain reaction, and isolate relatedness was determined by use of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). RESULTS: Investigations of six situations where MRSA was identified in one or more animals in a household or veterinary facility were performed. MRSA was isolated from 8 animals (5 dogs and 3 cats) with clinical infections, 1 cat that was in contact with 2 infected cats and 14/88 (16%) of household contacts or veterinary personnel. Both animal-to-human and human-to-animal transmission were suspected. An indistinguishable MRSA isolate was recovered from at least one human that was in contact with each animal case. All isolates were classified as Canadian epidemic MRSA-2, the predominant community-associated MRSA clone in humans in Canada. No isolates possessed genes encoding for the PVL. CONCLUSIONS: Transmission of MRSA between humans and animals, in both directions, was suspected. MRSA appears to be an emerging veterinary and zoonotic pathogen.     

A serological survey of Toxoplasma gondii infection in zoo animals and other animals

A survey for Toxoplasma gondii (Tp) infection in the animals bred or caught in and around Kobe Municipal Oji Zoo was conducted by the Latex Agglutination (LA) test using plasma samples collected for the years from 1980 to 1988. Plasma antibody to Tp (greater than or equal to 1:64) was found in 5.0% (0 of 181) mammals belonging to 28 families of 10 orders and 6.7% (12 of 179) aves belonging to 22 families of 15 orders, respectively. Cats, rats and pigeons caught in and around the zoo lower positive rates than those reported in previous studies: 9.3% (4 of 43), 0% (0 of 55) and 4.9% (4 of 82), respectively. High antibody titers were obtained from a Caribbean flamingo, a chimpanzee and 7 other animals born in the zoo. These results suggest presence of some primary Tp infection in the animals bred in the zoo.     

The prevention of distemper in zoo animals

The distemper virus infection of different non-domestic carnivorous zoo animals is known since long. All species involved belonged to the suborder Fissipedia. In 1988 a distemper or morbillivirus-like infection occurred in harbour seals, a member of the suborder pinnipedia. For the prophylaxis of distemper in dogs attenuated live vaccines are commonly used. In zoo animals, however, these vaccines caused distemper several times. In contrast, an inactivated virus vaccine proved both its safety and efficacy in more than hundred zoo animals of various species.     

Attempted eradication of methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus colonisation in horses on two farms

REASONS FOR PERFORMING STUDY: Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an emerging equine and zoonotic pathogen. Infection control protocols can be used to control MRSA in human hospitals, but measures to eradicate MRSA on horse farms have not been evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To describe an MRSA eradication programme that was used to attempt to eliminate MRSA colonisation among horses and horse personnel on 2 equine farms. METHODS: Active surveillance cultures and infection control protocols were implemented on 2 farms with endemic MRSA. RESULTS: Active screening and strict implementation of infection control protocols resulted in a rapid decrease in number of colonised horses on both farms. The majority of horses eliminated MRSA without antimicrobial treatment. On one farm colonisation was eradicated, while only 2 (3%) colonised horses remained on the other farm at the end of the study. CONCLUSIONS: Although at this stage the benefit of eradication of MRSA from populations of horses and cost-benefit studies have not been established, this study illustrates that short-term eradication can be achieved with a policy of segregation, enhanced infection control precautions and repeated testing of groups of animals. POTENTIAL RELEVANCE: Infection control practices should form the basis of MRSA control. Antimicrobial therapy does not appear to be required for eradication of MRSA colonisation in horses and control of MRSA on farms. In appropriate circumstances, these methods may be useful for controlling the spread of this potentially serious pathogen.     

An outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin infections resulting from horse to human transmission in a veterinary hospital

There are increasing reports of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection and colonization in horses and evidence that MRSA can be transmitted between horses and humans. The objective of this study was to investigate reports of skin infection in personnel working with a foal with community-associated MRSA colonization and subsequent infection. Clinical diagnostic specimens were collected from individuals reporting skin lesions following contact with the affected foal. Nasal and groin screening swabs were collected from other veterinary personnel that attended a voluntary screening clinic. MRSA skin infections were identified in three neonatal intensive care unit personnel. Nasal colonization was subsequently identified in 10/103 (9.7%) other veterinary hospital personnel. Isolates were indistinguishable by pulsed field gel electrophoresis, classified as Canadian epidemic MRSA-5, possessed SCCmecIV, were negative for the Panton-Valentine leukocidin and were multidrug resistant. Transmission to veterinary personnel despite short-term contact with standard protective barriers highlights the potential importance of MRSA as an emerging zoonotic pathogen, and indicates that further evaluation of interspecies transmission of MRSA and means to prevent zoonotic infection are required.     

Isolation of Campylobacter species from zoo animals and polymerase chain reaction-based random amplified polymorphism DNA analysis

A total of 104 fecal specimens from 30 mammals, 12 birds, and 3 reptiles at the Phoenix Zoological Gardens, Miyazaki City, Japan, were examined for the presence of Campylobacter species. All the animals examined were healthy with no fecal abnormality. Twenty-three (22.1%) thermophilic campylobacters, (9 C. jejuni, 11 C. hyointestinalis, 2 C. coli, and 1 C. lari), were isolated from 11 animals (7 mammals and 4 birds). C. jejuni and C. hyointestinalis were the predominant species isolated from these zoo animals and C. hyointestinalis was isolated frequently from simians. As selective media influence the numbers and species of campylobacters isolated, the agar medium was not supplemented with cephalothin. Campylobacters were isolated most frequently when a combination of enrichment culture and selective agar plating was performed at 42 degrees C. For the epidemiological study, a polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) method was used as a tool to detect the heterogeneity of amplified DNAs of Campylobacter spp. isolated from zoo animals. The two arbitrary primers used in this study enabled even closely related strains of the same Campylobacter spp. to be differentiated. RAPD analysis revealed considerable diversity among the strains, suggesting that the transmission of Campylobacter spp. among animals in a defined area occurred through different mechanisms.Examination of the genotypic diversity among the multiple clones from the same host also revealed differences between clones. These results demonstrate that campylobacter populations in zoo animals are highly divergent.     

Factors associated with antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli in zoo animals

Factors associated with the carriage of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli isolates were analysed among zoo animals. An association was observed between selection of amoxicillin as the first-line therapy and a significantly higher percentage of resistance to ampicillin (54.5%) from 11 animals treated with antimicrobials, compared with isolates from 32 untreated animals (9.4%). In addition, the percentage resistance to kanamycin (36.4%), gentamicin (27.3%), trimethoprim (27.3%) and tetracycline (63.6%) from 11 treated animals was significantly higher than those from 32 untreated animals (3.1%, 3.1%, 3.1% and 25%, respectively), although these antimicrobials were rarely used. All kanamycin-, gentamicin- and trimethoprim-resistant isolates and more than half of the tetracycline-resistant isolates from treated animals were also resistant to ampicillin. Co-resistance to other antimicrobials with ampicillin was suggested to contribute to an increasing of resistance towards antimicrobials that were rarely administered. The present investigation revealed an association of antimicrobial treatment with the spread of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria among zoo animals.     

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an emerging pathogen in small animals

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is an important nosocomial pathogen in humans and is increasingly implicated in community-associated infections in people. In household pets, MRSA infections are uncommon but are on the rise, possibly because of the increased prevalence of human MRSA in the community. Clinical MRSA infections in some animals can be life threatening and difficult to treat; however, other animals may develop mild disease or only become colonized. Veterinarians should be aware of the concerns regarding MRSA and should develop an understanding of appropriate disease surveillance, diagnostic testing, and infection control in order to lessen the impact of MRSA on small animals.     

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolated from animals and veterinary personnel in Ireland

Reports of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in animals have become more frequent in recent years. This paper documents the recovery of MRSA from animals with respiratory, urinary tract or wound infection and from animals subjected to surgical procedures following treatment in one veterinary hospital and 16 private veterinary clinics in different geographical locations throughout Ireland. MRSA was recovered from 25 animals comprising 14 dogs, eight horses, one cat, one rabbit and a seal, and also from 10 attendant veterinary personnel. Clinical susceptibility testing suggested that the 35 isolates fell into two different groups. One group of isolates (Group 1) was resistant to one or more of the following classes of antimicrobials: macrolides, lincosamines, tetracyclines and/or fluoroquinolones. The second group (Group 2) was resistant to macrolides, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines and trimethoprim/sulphamethoxazole and variably resistant to fluoroquinolones, lincosamines and rifampicin. One isolate in Group 2 was susceptible to trimethoprim. Epidemiological typing by antibiogram-resistogram (AR) typing, biotyping and by chromosomal DNA restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis using SmaI digestion followed by pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), confirmed these two major clusters. PFGE analysis showed that most isolates from non-equine animals were indistinguishable from each other and from the isolates from personnel caring for these animals. MRSA was isolated from eight horses which attended six different veterinary practices before referral to an equine veterinary hospital. Isolates from the eight horses and from their attendant personnel had PFGE patterns that were indistinguishable and were unlike the patterns obtained from the other isolates. Comparison of PFGE patterns of isolates from veterinary sources with patterns from MRSA recovered in human hospitals showed that the most frequently occurring pattern of MRSA from non-equine animals was indistinguishable from the predominant pattern obtained from the most prevalent MRSA strain in the human population in Ireland. However, the patterns of the isolates from horses were unlike any patterns previously reported in Irish studies of human isolates. This study shows that transmission of two strains of MRSA is occurring in veterinary practices in Ireland and that one strain may have arisen from human hospitals. The source of the second strain remains to be determined.     

Evaluation of prevalence and risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in veterinary personnel attending an international equine veterinary conference

Infection and colonization with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) are now increasingly being reported in animals and people who work with animals, including horses and horse personnel. The objectives of this study were to evaluate the prevalence of MRSA colonization in veterinary personnel attending an international equine veterinary conference, and to identify risk factors for MRSA colonization in this group. Volunteers were recruited at the conference to provide a single nasal swab and complete a questionnaire regarding contact with the human health care system, contact with horses, and personal hand hygiene. Colonization with MRSA was found in 26/257 (10.1%) of study participants. Multivariable analysis showed an increased risk of MRSA colonization associated with having been diagnosed with or having treated a patient diagnosed with MRSA colonization or infection in the last year (odds ratio [OR] 8.41, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.51–49.92, P = 0.015; OR 3.27, 95% CI 1.05–10.11, P = 0.039, respectively), whereas hand washing between infectious cases (OR 0.27, 95% CI 0.11–0.72, P = 0.009) and hand washing between farms (OR 0.35, 95% CI 0.14–0.98, P = 0.047) were protective. The prevalence of MRSA colonization among equine veterinary personnel found in this study was high compared to that of other studies of the general population. These data support previous suggestions that equine veterinary personnel are at increased risk of colonization with MRSA. This is the first study to demonstrate a statistically significant association between hand hygiene practices and a measurable clinical outcome in veterinary medicine.