Review on Agroforestry Systems in China

INTRODUCTIONChina is the most populated country in the world. Thepopulation of the mainland amounts to 1.3 billion in2004. The land area is approximately 9.6 million km2,of which the proportion of arable land is low. Thiscovers about 10% of the total land area; on the average,there is around 0.09 ha of tilled land per capita.Furthermore, the arable land is unevenly distributed inthe country. Forests cover 13.92% of the whole landarea, 134 million ha or 0.095 ha per capita (Xu Xingquanet …     

中国可持续农业发展中的农林复合系统评价

中国是一个具有生物地理多样性和复杂社会经济条件的大国，其农林业资源的可持续性正在受到变化的自然和社会经济环境的严峻挑战。分析表明，多样化的农林复合系统（Ａｇｒｏｆｏｒｅｓｔｒｙｓｙｓｔｅｍｓ）在中国各主要区域可持续农业发展中起着十分重要的作用。然而，适用于多样化的农林复合系统综合评价方法的缺陷，使农林复合系统具有的优势难以得到真实的反映。文章从单一目标评价、多目标评价、风险评价和社会经济评价四个方面，分析了其在中国农林复合系统评价中的应用。分析显示中国农林复合系统的评价主要局限于财务效益方法。从农业可持续发展的宏观背景出发，这显然是不够的。文章接着探讨了在人类生态学理论的基本框架中，农业生态系统分析方法、农业系统分析方法及农林复合系统设计与诊断方法在农林复合系统评价中综合运用的可能性。并指出模型方法，特别是多目标规划方法，由于其与农林复合系统多功能特性一致，具有很大应用潜力。文章最后给出了农林复合系统综合评价的理论构架，指出农林复合系统是个特殊的具有多层次、多功能和多效益特征的农业生态系统。农林复合系统的综合评价必须从可持续发展的观点出发，设计和选择包括生态、经济和社会文化方面的多目标标准体系，并在不同层次     

我国农林系统小气候研究概述

综述了我国自１９９０年以来农林系统小气候研究概况及进展。农林系统的小气候特征是：（１）热量平衡的各分量白天为正值,夜间为负值。热量平衡的各分量中,潜热通量占净辐射的比值最大,湍流热通量和土壤热通量均较小。（２）在农林系统中,随着植物覆盖度的增加,其净辐射、光照强度、温度日较差和风速随之减小,但空气湿度增加,（３）在农林系统中,随着土壤深度的增加,土温变化的振幅安几何级数减小,位相按等差级数落后。土     

Perennial crop-based agroforestry systems in Northeast Brazil

Land use systems in the Northeast Region of Brazil are dominated by large holdings and extensive cultivation of perennial crops such as cashew, coconut, carnauba wax palm, babaçu palm and so on. The common feature which links these crops is the silvopastoral system of livestock (chiefly cattle, sheep and donkeys) grazing under them. Agrosilvicultural systems involving cultivation of annual subsistence crops, and in some instances other perennials, in the stands of these perennial crops is also common. The paper presents the available information on the management, production, rate of growth, economic importance, etc. of these agroforestry systems involving cashew, coconut and carnauba palm. These systems are of considerable merit in the environmental, agricultural and socio-economic conditions of Northeast Brazil. However, practically no research nor even systematic data collection has been done on these so that there is an almost total lack of information on them. In order to improve the systems, they should be studied in detail and research undertaken on various components (crops, trees and livestock) individually as well as the system as a whole. Selection of suitable species of grass and other herbaceous crops, appropriate management techniques for both overstorey and understorey species in relation to the age of the overstorey species, optimal stocking rates of animals, etc. have to be determined so as to enable plantation owners and operators to realize the full potential of these systems.     

定西地区黄土丘陵沟壑区农林复合生态系统分类研究

在总结和参考国内外农林复合经营系统分类体系研究成果的基础上,根据定西地区黄土丘陵沟壑区气候类型、立地条件、社会经济、农林复合经营现状,以及农村经济和区域生态环境建设综合发展的需要,提出了定西地区黄土丘陵沟壑区农林复合生态系统分类原则及分类体系。     

我国农林复合系统自然资源利用率研究进展

农林复合系统是一种动态的自然资源管理系统,通过总结我国农林复合系统在光能、水分、养分及土地等自然资源利用率的研究进展,认为农林复合系统具有提高自然资源利用率等重要作用,只是由于气候、树种林种及其密度和林龄、作物种类的差异,使得提高的幅度有所差异而已;并从研究尺度、研究内容及方法等角度,提出研究展望。     

Agroforestry in central,northern, and eastern Europe

Integrated management of natural resources and the multiple use of trees and forests have prevailed in most European societies since prehistoric times. In the Middle Ages, expanding and intensified agriculture resulted in the separation of trees from agricultural fields. During the last century, with the introduction of sustainable and highly productive forest management, the goal of increased wood production has been achieved in most parts of central, northern, and eastern Europe. Today, agroforestry is not considered to be an important land-use option within the region; however, there are many practices that could rightfully be classified as agroforestry. These include tree/crop systems in which trees provide products and/or environmental benefits, and tree/animal systems in which animals are grazed in forests or open woodlands.The future seems to offer some prospects for agroforestry. Large areas, hitherto used for food production, are either marginally suited to agriculture, or will probably be taken out of production due to agricultural policy considerations. Agroforestry may, at least in part, offer alternatives for the use of such lands. The availability of (surplus) fertile soils, capital, and labor may provide incentives for site-adapted forms of agroforestry, including improved fallow management. The focus of such systems would be on maintenance of biodiversity in the landscape, environmental protection, recreation, and product diversification.There are numerous expectations as to what agroforestry might provide for the land holder and for society as a whole. These expectations should be carefully analyzed and evaluated prior to political decisions on future land use. The promotion of agroforestry requires overall investment; agroforestry does not happen by itself. A set of integrated actions — not isolated efforts — must be implemented if agroforestry is to become a successful land-use option.     

Agroforestry systems in North America

Agroforestry systems in North America vary widely in terms of components (tree, forb, graminoid, and shrub species) and outputs. Most of the agroforestry systems used in North America have emphasized wood and livestock production. The objective of each system has been to produce annual and long term economic returns and sustainable yields. Inputs such as fossil fuels, fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides are relatively low compared to those used in conventional agriculture.Major agroforestry system types in each of eight North American regions are described. The major species used as vegetational components in each system are enumerated by region. The numerous variations in how these components are mixed have created an almost endless number of actual systems. Management problems and solutions, economic concerns, and system comparisons have also been addressed for each region.     

Agroforestry training and extension: the experience from Haiti

An agroforestry project was funded by the US Agency for International Development and implemented by the Pan American Development Foundation in Haiti from 1981 to 1991. This project is considered by many to be one of the most successful projects of its kind in Haiti, and in the tropics as a whole. Over the ten years of its implementation, the project, referred to in Haitian Creole as Pwoje Pyebwa (Tree Project), evolved from a tree production and planting project to a much broader soil-conservation-based program involving trees. This paper summarizes the training and extension systems that developed during that period. The socioeconomic background studies that were done before the project began, and the flexible, consultative mode of field-team implementation, incorporating elements of the learning process approach, were important to the success of the project. During the implementation of the project, however, concern for farmer input and participation should have been incorporated more systematically into the field operations of the regional teams.     

城郊农林复合生态系统建设与管理

本文通过对城郊农林复合生态系统含义、原理、管理技术等方面的论述 ,提出建设农、林、牧、副协调发展 ,集高新技术、现代农林业技术、管理技术于一体的多功能城郊农林复合生态系统 ,成为城市森林生态工程的重要组成部分     

中国复合农林业发展机遇与研究展望

通过概述复合农林业基本内涵、中国林业可持续发展战略及六大林业工程建设与复合农林业的关系.说明复合农林业发展机遇.并结合复合农林业及其相关学科的发展趋势,从研究尺度、研究手段、研究方式、研究地域和热点研究内容等方面,提出我国未来复合农林业研究展望.     

Agroforestry research in India: a brief review

India's long tradition of agroforestry has been influenced by numerous religious, social, and economic factors. Several indigenous agroforestry systems, based on peoples' needs and site-specific characteristics, have developed over the years. Agroforestry research was initiated in the country about two decades ago; since then, considerable progress has been achieved. The interactions between and among the tree, crop, grass, and animal components have been studied, and several agroforestry technologies have been developed and tried on farmers' lands. Agroforestry research is now conducted under the auspices of the All India Coordinated Agroforestry Research Project of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research at 31 centers distributed over India's tropical and temperate regions. In addition to research, the program includes agroforestry training of farmers, technicians, and scientists at 28 centers throughout the country. Expectations from agroforestry are high in India in both rural and urban areas; these expectations include production benefits that are in harmony with the ecology, environment, traditions, and heritage of the country.     

Agroforestry farming systems in the homesteads of Kerala,southern India

Kerala State on the southwestern coast of India in the tropical humid zone has a predominantly agricultural economy, a very high density of population and therefore high pressure on cultivable land. The farmers there undertake cultivation of an array of crops — tree crops, plantation crops, seasonals and biennials — all in intimate mixtures on the same piece of land around the homesteads. Farm animals and poultry and sometimes fisheries also are essential components of the system. The close association of agricultural crops, tree crops and animals in the homesteads represents an excellent example of sustainable and productive agroforestry homegardens. Optimum utilization of available resources of land, solar energy and technological inputs and an efficient recycling of farm wastes are important characteristics of the systems. This paper attempts to describe and evaluate the systems' stability, productivity and sustainability, and identify its merits and constraints as well as research needs.     

Evaluation of tropical forage legumes under Pinus caribaea var hondurensis in Turrialba,Costa Rica

A number of tropical forage legume species were sown in Turrialba., Costa Rica, in plots in the open and under an even cover of Pinus caribaea var hondurensis of basal area 30m²/ha. Mean light level under the trees was 18% full sunlight. After 19 months, species showing good shade tolerance and adaptation to local conditions were: Centrosema spp., Desmodium spp., Flemingia congesta, Galactia striata. Species of poor performance in the shade were: Stylosanthes spp., Indigofera hirsuta, Cajanus cajan, Stilozobium sp.. Canavalia ensiformis, an annual, grew well in the shade, as did Lablab purpureus and Vigna unguiculata. It is suggested that further work be done on the shade tolerant species for eventual use as components of silvopastoral systems. Recommendations are made concerning germplasm collections, evaluation methodology and research for silvopasture development.

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Resumen Se sembraron especies diversas de leguminosas forrajeras en Turrialba, Costa Rica, en parcelas al descubierto y bajo una cobertura uniforme de Pinus caribaea var hondurensis con area basal de 30 m²/ha. El nivel medio de iluminación bajo los pinos era 18% del nivel a pleno sol. Despues de 19 meses las especies que mostraron buena adaptación a la sombra eran: Centrosema spp., Desmodium spp., Flemingia congesta, Galactia striata. Especies de bajo rendimiento en la sombra eran: Stylosanthes spp., Indigofera hirsuta, Cajanus cajan, Stilozobium sp., La planta anuál Canavalia ensiformis creció bien bajo sombra, como tambien lo hicieron Lablab purpureus y Vigna unguiculata. Se sugiere que se investiguen las especies mencionadas como bien adaptadas al sombreamiento para uso en sistemas silvopastoriles. Se presentan recomendaciones sobre colecciones de germoplasma, metodologia de evaluación y investigación para el desarollo de sistemas silvopastoriles.

     

Agroforestry and its application in amelioration of saline soils in eastern China coastal region

Some environmental problems, especially soil salinity hinder the regional sustainable development of eastern China coastal region. Salinity mainly comes from tide weave, seawater flooding and seawater intrusion. Over exploitation of groundwater,which is the result of unfitful land use systems, leads to seawater intrusion and salt concentration increase. Agroforestry systems can enrich soil fertility and prevent soil salinization, furthermore help maintain biodiversity and enhance productivity. For the intergrated multiple ecosystems the most critical issue is to select optimum tree species and rationally arrange these plants. The basics of this multiple ecosystem is that different plants will occupy variable ecological niches within an area, both in space and in soil depth.Shelterbelts and trees intercropping with agricultural crops are major types of the multiple ecosystem. Shelterbelts can reduce wind speed and consequently lessen evaporation and erosion of the soil, increase pasture growth by up to 60% on exposed sites, increase crop yields by up to 25%. Besides intercropping with jujube, other agroforestry multiple ecosystem such as forestry plus agriculture,forestry plus agriculture plus fishery, and forestry plus animal husbandry are the most appropriate ways to utilise land resource in this region.     

Agroforestry in Nepal: research and practice

Agroforestry research and practice in Nepal is reviewed. The social and ecological complexity of the country is outlined along with some of the methodological problems. The central importance of trees for fodder and areas that they can be planted on farms are discussed. The role of adjacent forest for compost, firewood and tree seedlings is also highlighted. A system containing Nepalese Alder is outlined and assessed as an agroforestry system that is increasingly being adapted in the middle hills of eastern Nepal.     

植被分类系统与方法综述

植被分类是植被研究的重要组成部分,亦是植被研究中最复杂的问题之一。植被分类研究能够为制定与保护和合理利用植被相关的法律法规及措施提供科学依据。本文详细介绍了植被分类的历史,以及植被分类的各种原则和系统及其应用情况。揭示出植被分类的原则从单一性向综合性,分类方法从外貌分类向数量分类的发展趋势。     

Silvopastoral Practices and the Condor Bioreserve,Ecuador

Abstract

The Condor Bioreserve initiative has the potential to serve as a model of integrated watershed management for developing countries. Within the region, landowners and settlers, government agencies and multiple non-governmental organizations face the challenge to modify land uses to best serve the tripartite goals of managing water resources, preserving critical habitat for biological conservation, and maintaining livelihoods. Livestock, especially cattle, are a valued commodity for people in the region. At the same time, increased tree cover on private land can provide many benefits such as increased income diversity, soil retention, and improved conditions for biological conservation. Silvopastoral systems can accommodate the desires of local landowners for livestock while addressing conservation goals of increased tree cover. A review of such systems and related conditions in the Bioreserve region and Ecuador is followed by reviews of other examples from the Andes region and other mountainous parts of the world. Suggestions include promoting forestry systems with fuller canopies through a rating system in park connector areas and buffer zones, local value-added timber processing, consideration of timber certification, and continuing current successes, such as extensionists promoting tree-related projects, markets for forestry products derived from private lands, community tree nurseries, and improved pastures incorporating trees.     

韩国山林农业概况与类型

"山林复合经营项目"是韩国在1999年为了增加林业从业者的收入而正式实施的,主要包括短期收入、木材生产和复合山地管理3种类型。截至2005年,该项目在韩国国内的168个市(区)都得到了推广。文中主要介绍韩国山林农业系统,分析该系统存在的问题并探讨与之相应的解决方案,提出应在开发更可行的复合农林经营模式的基础上加大对林业从业者的培训和奖励力度并改善对复合农林业的支持制度。     

Agroforestry and portfolio theory

Portfolio theory is used to analyse the risk of hypothetical agroforestry systems. It is shown that the relationship of the returns of the components of an agroforestry system, expressed in terms of the covariance or correlation of returns, is of vital importance in correctly defining risk. Agroforestry systems can be classified as efficient or inefficient. Inefficient systems are such that an alternative system exists which has a greater return for the same level of risk. Thus, inefficient systems do not represent rational choices for agroforestry systems. Finally, the conclusion is reached that it is impossible to design a best system, but rather a set of efficient systems of differing risk and return can be defined. This set of efficient systems is referred to as the efficient frontier.