Movement of Road Salt to a Small New Hampshire Lake

Runoff of road salt from an interstate highway in New Hampshire has led to contamination of a lake and a stream that flows into the lake, in spite of the construction of a diversion berm to divert road salt runoff out of the lake drainage basin. Chloride concentration in the stream has increased by over an order of magnitude during the 23 yr since the highway was opened, and chloride concentration in the lake has tripled. Road salt moves to the lake primarily via the contaminated stream, which provides 53% of all the chloride to the lake and only 3% of the total streamflow to the lake. The stream receives discharge of salty water from leakage through the diversion berm. Uncontaminated ground water dilutes the stream downstream of the berm. However, reversals of gradient during summer months, likely caused by transpiration from deciduous trees, result in flow of contaminated stream water into the adjacent ground water along the lowest 40-m reach of the stream. This contaminated ground water then discharges into the lake along a 70-m-wide segment of lake shore. Road salt is pervasive in the bedrock between the highway and the lake, but was not detected at all of the wells in the glacial overburden. Of the 500 m of shoreline that could receive discharge of saly ground water directly from the highway, only a 50-m-long segment appears to be contaminated.     

Nitrogen and phosphorus in lake Ontario tributary waters

During the Spring of 1972 through the Spring of 1973 samples of rivers tributary to Lake Ontario and streams in the Genesee River Basin (New York) were analyzed for N and P forms by chemical methods, then incubated in darkness or bioassayed with algae to estimate the percentage of total N, organic N, total P or particulate P which could eventually become available for algal growth in Lake Ontario. The total available P in the river water samples could be estimated by adding to the soluble orthophosphate 0.2 of the difference between the soluble orthophosphate and the total phosphate. The total available N can be estimated from the sum of the inorganic N (NH₃ and NO₃ ^?) plus 0.5 times the total organic N concentration     

Trace element concentrations in fish from three Adirondack lakes with different pH values

Concentrations of 29 elements were detected in the axial muscle, and 44 elements were detected in the gut contents of white suckers (Catostomus commersoni) and yellow perch (Perca favescens) from three lakes located in the New York State Adirondack Preserve. The study lakes were acidic Darts Lake, variable pH Lake Rondaxe, and circumneutral Moss Lake. For the majority of the elements, there were no clear differences in the muscle concentrations among fish inhabiting the three types of lakes. Two notable exceptions were Hg and Pb. With some exceptions, the highest muscle tissue Pb concentrations were found in fish from the acidic lake. For both species, the Hg was higher in the muscle than in the gut regardless of lake acidity. Other elements potentially toxic to humans (As, Cd, Ga, Pb, Se, and TI) were not accumulated in the muscle relative to the gut.     

Living lakes: An aquatic liming and fish restoration demonstration program

Living Lakes, Inc. (LLI), a not-for profit organization, sponsors an applied aquatic resources restoration demonstration program for acidified waters. In 1986 and 1987 LLI began evaluation of seven different liming technologies on 22 lakes and 10 streams in 6 states. Lakes and streams have been treated in the states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland and West Virginia. The Living Lakes program commits to ongoing water quality analysis for the lakes and streams treated for the life of the program and, if necessary, retreatment. Living Lakes has recently begun investigations into the treatment of partial or entire watersheds in conjunction with the Loch Fleet project in Scotland, investigations in the Black Forest in Germany, and studies in the Woods Lake watershed in the Adirondack region of the state of New York, co-sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute.     

Ectogenic Meromixis of Lake Hallst?ttersee, Austria Induced by Waste Water Intrusions from Salt Mining

Lake Hallstättersee is a holomictic alpine lake, which is influenced by salt mining since the middle Bronze Age. Beside the constant saline waste water load, two massive brine spills loaded the lake with additional 16,900 tons sodium chloride (??10,250 tons Cl^?) from 1977 to 1979 and 3,000 tons salt (??1,820 tons Cl^?) in 2005. The effect of waste water intrusions from salt mining on stratification of Lake Hallstättersee was analysed over a period of 40 years. Water density, dissolved oxygen and total phosphorus (TP) concentrations were measured and an exponential model was fitted to describe the wash-out of chloride from Lake Hallstättersee after the brine spills. Furthermore, the time required returning to holomixis and steady chloride content after the second brine spill was estimated. During the whole sampling period the minimum and maximum volume-weighted annual mean chloride concentrations were 23.58 mg/L in 1979 and 3.19 mg/L in 1998. However, the mixing regime of Lake Hallstättersee, as well as the chloride concentrations, varied considerably and exhibited three holomictic and three meromictic periods between 1970 and 2009. Holomictic periods were observed when the yearly density gradient was below 0.06 kg/m³, deepwater oxygen in spring above 4 mg/L and consequently declining TP concentration in the deepest water layer below 60 mg/m³, otherwise meromictic periods were observed. Our study showed that Hallstättersee was 13 years ectogenic meromictic and 27 years holomictic during the study period.     

Acidic precipitation at a site within the northeastern conurbation

Rain and snow were collected in plastic beakers either manually or with a Wong sampler during 58 precipitation events in 1974 at Yonkers, New York approximately 24 km north of the center of New York City. Determinations were made of total dissolved ionic species, free H ions, total H ions, sulfate, nitrate, chloride, and fluoride. Conductivity measurements ranged from 6.8 to 162 gmhos, pH from 3.4 to 4.9, total acidity from 36 to 557 μeq 1^?1 sulfate from less than 1 to 20 mg 1^?1, nitrate from less than 1 to 14 mg 1^?1, and chloride from less than 1 to 7 mg 1^?1. All fluoride concentrations were less than 0.1 mg 1^?1. The results indicate that precipitation at this suburban location adjacent to New York City is consistently acidic and contains concentrations of sulfate, nitrate, and chloride which are similar to values found for other locations in the northeastern United States. Positive correlations were found between nitrate and sulfate concentrations and acidity suggesting that the atmospheric contaminants, SO₂, and NO₂ are causally-related to the occurrence of acidic precipitation. Further research will be necessary to clarify the relative influence of natural and man-made sources of N and S compounds and the contributions of gaseous and particulate contaminants in the atmosphere to the acidity of precipitation at this location.     

Environmental Evaluation of Metals in Sediments and Dragonflies Due to Sugar Cane Cultivation in Neotropical Streams

The use of fertilizers, containing different metals ions such as lead(II), chromium(III), cadmium(II), copper(II) and zinc(II), in the soil, for sugar cane cultivation, may cause impacts on the hydric resources of the adjacent areas. The scope of this study was to evaluate the impacts of sugar cane cultivation based on metal concentrations in sediments and dragonflies (Odonata). The bioavailability of such metals was determined in ten Neotropical streams. Six streams were located on areas with sugar cane cultivation, without riparian vegetation (classified as impacted area) and four streams were located on forested areas (reference sites). The results showed that there are high concentrations of metals in the sediments and dragonflies in streams located on impacted areas. The contamination by metals of aquatic insects of terrestrial adult life cycle, as Odonata organisms, represents a dangerous link for the transference of metals to upper trophic levels, as fishes, reptiles, birds and mammals.     

Chronology of anthropogenic trace element input to four Utah lakes reconstructed using sediment cores

Trace element deposition chronologies are presented for radionuclide dated sediment cores collected from four Utah lakes. A core collected from Mirror Lake, a remote lake located in northern Utah, records a century long period of atmospheric deposition of anthropogenic Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd and Sn. Trace element concentration profiles in a core collected from Panguitch Lake, a remote lake located in southern Utah, give no indication of enhanced atmospheric deposition of trace elements in that part of the state. Sediment cores collected from Echo Reservoir and Deer Creek Reservoir, located near Salt Lake City, record releases of Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, As, Sb, and Tl rich mine wastes into watershed streams from the now defunct Park City mining complex.     

Trace Elements In Water,Fish and Sediment from Tuskegee Lake,Southeastern Usa

The concentrations of trace elements in water, sediment and fish samples from Tuskegee Lake located in Southeastern United States were investigated in this study. The Lake is utilized both as a source for municipal drinking water, and for recreational fishing. The water quality characteristics over two sampling periods, the speciation of metals in the Lake sediments, the risk to water column contamination and levels of heavy metals in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) samples from the Lake were evaluated. The Lake water quality characteristics were mostly below the recommended drinking water standards by the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the European Union (EU) except for aluminum, iron, manganese and thallium. In addition, the average values of Cr, As, Mn, Zn and Cl^- in the water samples analyzed were higher than the respective reference values for fresh water. To study the speciation of metals in the Lake sediments, ten elements (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, V, and Zn) in four grain sizes (< 710 μm – 250 μm, < 250 μm – 75 μm, < 75 μm – 53μm, and < 53 μm) were subjected to sequential extractions. Irrespective of grain size, the elements analyzed were distributed in both the non-residual and residual phases except Ni that was found only in the residual fraction. The potential risk to Lake water contamination was highest downstream (Sites 1 and 2) based on the calculated global contamination factors. From the calculated individual contamination factors, Mn and Pb followed by Zn, Cu, Cr, Co and V posed the highest risk to water contamination. Based on this study, the human health risks for heavy metals in fish caught from Tuskegee Lake are low for now, and irrespective of the source of fish, concentrations of metals in muscle tissues were all below the recommended Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) maximum limits for Pb (0.5 mg Kg^-1), Cd (0.5 mg Kg^-1), Cu (30 mg Kg^-1), and Zn (30 mg Kg^-1) in fish.     

Phosphorus cycling in ionically polluted Onondaga lake,New York

A synthesis of the P cycling in Onondaga Lake, New York, is presented, with particular emphasis on the impact of the attendant chemical pollution. The lake has been the focus of a restoration program aimed at reducing phytoplankton biomass through reduction of external P loads. The chemical pollution has altered the behavior of P in at least four ways: (1) reduced vertical mixing, (2) enhanced chemical reactivity of P, (3) increased rate of deposition of P, and (4) reduced availability of sedimentary P. These features reflect very nonconservative behavior of P in the lake, which should facilitate the positive response of the lake to further restoration efforts. The failure of Onondaga Lake to respond to major reductions in external P loading achieved by 1981 reflects the degree to which the system was originally overloaded. Internal P cycling, and P concentrations, in the lake would increase if the loading of ionic material from the major source was discontinued, due to the reversal of existing pollution-based alterations to the P cycle.     

Biodegradation of Synthetic Dyes—A Review

The upper Great Egg Harbor River watershed in New Jersey’s Coastal Plain is urbanized but extensive freshwater wetlands are present downstream. In 2006–2007, studies to assess levels of total mercury (THg) found concentrations in unfiltered streamwater to range as high as 187 ng/L in urbanized areas. THg concentrations were <20 ng/L in streamwater in forested/wetlands areas where both THg and dissolved organic carbon concentrations tended to increase while pH and concentrations of dissolved oxygen and nitrate decreased with flushing of soils after rain. Most of the river’s flow comes from groundwater seepage; unfiltered groundwater samples contained up to 177 ng/L of THg in urban areas where there is a history of well water with THg that exceeds the drinking water standard (2,000 ng/L). THg concentrations were lower (<25 ng/L) in unfiltered groundwater from downstream wetland areas. In addition to higher THg concentrations (mostly particulate), concentrations of chloride were higher in streamwater and groundwater from urban areas than in those from downstream wetland areas. Methylmercury (MeHg) concentrations in unfiltered streamwater ranged from 0.17 ng/L at a forest/wetlands site to 2.94 ng/L at an urban site. The percentage of THg present as MeHg increased as the percentage of forest + wetlands increased, but also was high in some urban areas. MeHg was detected only in groundwater <1 m below the water/sediment interface. Atmospheric deposition is presumed to be the main source of Hg to the wetlands and also may be a source to groundwater, where wastewater inputs in urban areas are hypothesized to mobilize Hg deposited to soils.     

Effects of Afforestation on Acidity and Invertebrates in Danish Streams and Implications for Freshwater Communities in Denmark

The relationship between acidity and benthic invertebrate communities was investigated in two small streams in coniferous forests in central Jutland, Denmark, during 1992 and 1993. Stream pH was acid (mean pH 4.8 and 5.4) and alkalinity fluctuated greatly with mean values around zero. During rain events, water from springfed reaches upstream were mixed downstream with brown humic acid water with high aluminium content, and pH declined from circumneutral near the springs down to pH below 4 over a very short distance (0.5–1.5 km). The benthic invertebrate communities in the most acidic downstream reaches of both streams were dominated by filipalpian stoneflies, mainly Leuctra nigra (Olv.). Community composition remained very similar throughout the sampling period despite variations in pH. In the upper (neutral) reaches invertebrates intolerant of low pH such as Gammarus pulex L. were found. The concentrations of chloride and sulphate in the streams were more than double the concentrations in a nearby moorland stream indicating a strong impact of acidifying atmospheric deposition on the two forest streams. Results of this study indicate that afforestation with conifers on sandy Danish soils with low buffering capacity (about 25% of the total Danish land area) may lead to an increased acidification of surface waters and thereby also to an impoverished aquatic fauna.     

How Will Climate Change Affect Road Salt Export from Watersheds?

Salt applied to roads for de-icing can persist for decades in watersheds, and understanding rates of salt accumulation and export is important for anticipating the magnitude and duration of its environmental impacts. Salt removal is affected by storm frequency and intensity, both of which are projected to change as a result of anthropogenic climate change. To examine the potential outcomes of changing storm regimes on rates of salt export from watersheds, we studied chloride concentrations in baseflow and surface runoff in 5 years of streamflow data (taken at 20-min intervals) in a headwater tributary of the Hudson River. Baseflow, with chloride concentrations of 200–230 mg/L year-round, dominated streamflow, except during and after large storms, and accounted for about 90% of chloride export from the watershed. Extreme precipitation events (e.g., tropical storms) increased salt export mainly by increasing baseflow discharge, which remained elevated long after storms ended. While intense events accomplished more salt export per storm, they did not produce disproportionately higher export per volume of precipitation, compared to smaller rain events. Chloride export in a wet year was almost twice that in a dry year, despite less than a doubling of rainfall. Under future climate conditions, if winter precipitation shifts toward a higher proportion of rainfall, or summers experience a greater frequency of tropical storms, then long-term residence time of road salt in watersheds may be shorter than previously anticipated. Conversely, if climate becomes drier, with increased evapotranspiration, reduced infiltration and baseflow discharge may prolong salt storage, which could exacerbate biotic stresses from high chloride concentrations in streams.     

Gaseous Elemental Mercury Fluxes in New York City

As with many urban environments, a number of sources of airborne elemental mercury (Hg°) exist in New York City, yet little research has been conducted to examine the flux and sources of mercury in New York. In this study, we conducted ambient monitoring of Hg° at six locations in New York City. Airborne Hg° averaged 3.84±0.10 ng m^-3 and 3.70±0.08 ng m^-3 in the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn respectively, yet only 2.69±0.03 ng m^-3 in a more residential neighborhood in Queens. Both precipitation and ambient temperature were significantly correlated with ambient Hg° levels in New York City, suggesting that the surface emission of mercury from urban surfaces plays a role in urban Hg° concentrations. Local sources were also seen to contribute to urban Hg° levels by leading to `spikes' of Hg° in which elevated concentrations were recorded for short periods of time.     

Effectiveness of Composting Road-Killed Deer In New York State

Composting of deer carcasses was effective in reducing pathogen levels, decomposing the carcasses and producing a useable end product after 12 months. The composting process used in this project involved enveloping the carcasses of road-killed deer in woodchips and allowing those piles with natural air circulation to sit undisturbed. Temperatures were measured and samples from the piles were analyzed periodically for pathogens and for compost parameters. While significant pathogen reduction occurred in several months, it took 12 months for all of the measured pathogens to decline to low levels in all of the 6 piles studied. Samples taken at other sites in New York State that have been composting road-killed deer for over a year also had low pathogen content. We thus suggest a composting duration of 12 months before use. In the interest of being cautious, we also recommend that the end product be used in low public contact settings such as highway rights-of-way.     

Radioactivity of Strontium-90 in Soil Samples Along the Hai River in Tianjin,China

Coastal regions are in general subject to a high environmental impact, even in areas under environmental protection, such as the Lake Ichkeul located in northeastern Tunisia (N Africa) and the southern Mediterranean Sea. It is a Ramsar site, Biosphere Reserve, and World Heritage Site, but since the 1980s, this area has been threatened by the construction of dams on the main rivers which has been causing a negative impact on this ecosystem. Therefore, this study aims to contribute to the assessment of the sediment quality of Lake Ichkeul and the surrounding catchment areas. The work is based on the analysis of granulometric, mineralogical, and geochemical data (total organic carbon and elemental concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb, Mn, Zn, and Fe) in 19 surface sediment samples. The results allowed observing that the bottom of Lake Ichkeul consists of muddy sediments with high contents of phyllosilicates, quartz, and calcite and moderate organic matter contents. The high contents of fine sediments and phyllosilicates are mainly related to the weak currents in the lake, the characteristics of the watershed (natural influence), and the presence of dams (anthropogenic influence). Sandy sediments and high organic matter content were found at the mouth of most of the surrounding streams, suggesting that fine particles are transported in suspension and introduced into the lake as well as organic materials from the watershed that surround it. The spatial distribution and toxicity assessment based on the SQGs for the analyzed elements indicate the presence of high levels of metals in several sectors of the study area. In addition, it suggests that the trace elements might originate from different sources, namely municipal wastewater discharges close to the southeast sector and from agricultural fields in front Doumiss stream and Melah stream, which also load organic matter. The results suggest that the metal pollution of the lake was a result of runoff from the streams and dams, which allows us to deduce that it may develop into an increasing environmental degeneration due to its natural function and the different contributions of the watersheds that flow to it.

     

Projections of Chloride Concentrations in Urban Lakes Receiving Road De-icing Salt

The chloride concentrations of urban lakes where road de-icing salt (NaCl) is used have increased to levels that can change natural lake-mixing behavior and influence aquatic life. A zero-dimensional model was formulated to project the long-term accumulation of chloride in urban lakes receiving runoff from roads on which road salt is applied. Four model parameters and an initial concentration were obtained by calibrating the model with 5 years (2004–2008) of monthly salinity data from seven lakes in the Minneapolis/St. Paul Twin Cities Metropolitan Area of Minnesota, USA. Three of the seven lakes appear headed towards year-round volume averaged chloride concentrations above the 230-mg/L chronic standard for impairment to aquatic habitat. The two lakes with the lowest projected equilibrium concentrations of chloride have already reached equilibrium. One lake is projected to take an additional 40 years to reach equilibrium under current climate conditions and current road salt application rates. If road salt application rates are reduced in future winters, it is projected that the lakes will respond with noticeably lower chloride concentrations within 5 to 10 years. If road salt applications are discontinued altogether, chloride concentrations are projected to drop to natural levels within 10 to 30 years in all seven lakes. A reduction of application rates by 50% would result in annual volumetric average chloride concentrations below the chronic standard.     

Thirty Years of Chemical Changes in Alpine Acid-Sensitive Lakes in the Alps

The Pennask Creek watershed in British Columbia (BC), Canada has been contaminated with acid rock drainage (ARD) and associated metal leaching (ML) as a result of highway construction. By combining existing and newly gathered information, this study determined the extent of metal contamination of the water and sediments, the potential biological impacts of this contamination, the influence of local geology, and estimated the potential risk to aquatic organisms. Surface water and sediment samples from the watershed were analyzed for general chemical parameters and trace metals. Rock samples were analyzed for mineralogy and chemical composition. Metal concentrations in water and sediments downstream of the ARD/ML source were higher than elsewhere in the watershed. Metals of concern include aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn). Analysis of historical water quality data indicated that the concentrations of these metals have decreased markedly since 2004, due to remediation efforts. Rock samples collected from the streambeds and banks were not found to be potentially acid generating, but did contain significant levels of metals. Al, Cu, and Zn levels consistently exceeded BC water and sediment quality guidelines for the protection of aquatic life, indicating that adverse biological effects are probable at stations downstream of the ARD/ML source. Benthic invertebrate monitoring over a 10-year period showed low abundance and diversity and a complete absence of sensitive taxa at downstream stations. Risk quotients indicated a likelihood of adverse biological effects for aquatic organisms, including rainbow trout, due to metal contamination in the watershed.     

Acidity and conductivity of precipitation on central Long Island,New York in relation to meteorological variables

Three years of hourly sequential precipitation samples from central Long Island, New York were analyzed to determine the relationships between acidity and conductivity and concentrations of sulfate, nitrate plus nitrite, nitrogen in ammonium, sodium, and chloride ions. Relationships between precipitation acidity and meteorological conditions were also studied. Hydrogen ion concentrations are similar to those elsewhere in the northeastern United States. They are best correlated with sulfate concentrations but also correlate with concentrations of nitrogen in nitrate plus nitrite and nitrogen in ammonium ion. Concentrations are highest in the summer, with cold front and squall line precipitation and with rain showers and thundershowers. All ions measured contributed to sample conductivity but hydrogen ion contributed the most with sulfate ion second. Conductivity calculated from concentrations of the separate ions agreed well with measured conductivity. Conductivity showed relationships to meteorological conditions similar to those of hydrogen ion concentration except when sodium and chloride ions predominated in the sample.     

Redox Stratification and Salinization of Three Kettle Lakes in Southwest Michigan,USA

Redox stratification, especially hypolimnetic anoxia resulting from eutrophication, and salinization resulting from application of salts for road deicing is investigated in three kettle lakes in southwest Michigan. Two of the lakes (Asylum and Woods Lakes) are located in urban Kalamazoo, Michigan, and the third (Brewster Lake) is located in rural Hastings, Michigan. In summer, the water columns of all three lakes are distinctly redox stratified, with anoxic hypolimnia and significant accumulation of reduced solutes (e.g., Mn(II), Fe(II), ammonia) in the lake bottom waters. Extremely elevated conductivity, chloride, sodium, and potassium levels are observed in the urban Asylum and Woods Lakes compared to the rural Brewster Lake, presumably due to runoff of road salt deicers applied in the surrounding watershed. These significant changes in water quality are of concern because they may detrimentally impact lake mixing, biodiversity, and ecosystem function in the urban lakes.