Molecular dynamics of shoot vs. root biomarkers in an agricultural soil estimated by natural abundance C labelling

The aliphatic biopolyesters cutins and suberins have been suggested to significantly contribute to the stable pool of soil organic matter (SOM), and to be tracers for the above- or belowground origin of plant material. Contrary to other plant-derived aliphatic molecules found in the lipid fraction of soils, the stable isotope derived estimates of turnover of cutins and suberins have never been studied in soils. The aim of this study was to analyse the dynamics of shoot- and root-derived biomarkers in soils using a wheat and maize (C₃/C₄) chronosequence, where changes in the natural ¹³C abundance can be used to evaluate the incorporation of new carbon into SOM at the molecular level. The relative distribution of aliphatic monomers in wheat and maize roots and shoots suggested that α,ω-alkanedioic acids can be considered as root-specific markers and mid-chain hydroxy acids as shoot-specific markers.The contrasting distribution of the plant-specific monomers in plants and soils might be explained by different chemical mechanisms leading to selective degradation or stabilization of some biomarkers. The changes of the ¹³C isotopic signatures of these markers with years of maize cropping after wheat evidenced their contrasted behaviour in soil. After 12 years of maize cropping, shoot markers present in soil samples probably originated from old C₃ vegetation suggesting that new maize cutin added to soils was mostly degraded within a year. The reasons for long-term stabilization of shoot biomarkers remain unclear. By contrast, maize root markers were highly incorporated into SOM during the first six years of maize crop, which suggested a selective preservation of root biomass when compared to shoots, possibly due to physical protection.     

Wildfires influence on soil organic matter in an Atlantic mountainous region (NW of Spain)

The principal aim of this research was to determine the influence of wildfires on soil organic matter (SOM) content and composition in soils located on the northern slope of the Cantabrian Cordillera, an Atlantic mountainous region in the North West of Spain, where wildfires are frequent. Samples from soils with similar aspect, slope, elevation and vegetation characteristics, but with different wildfires histories were collected. Total organic carbon and total nitrogen contents were determined as well as the C/N ratio. Furthermore, a qualitative characterization of the soil organic carbon (SOC) was carried out by ¹³C variable amplitude cross polarization magic angle spinning (VACP/MAS) Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Our results show that, on the one hand, all the sampled soils can be considered important pools of carbon in this Atlantic mountainous region, especially in the heath areas. On the other hand, the fire-affected soils present higher SOM contents than their unburnt counterparts. This could be attributed to an important reaccumulation of fresh vegetal material, which is probably a consequence of the decrease of SOM decomposition rates after fire. Moreover, charred organic compounds are not found in all the burnt soils, which could be due to the long time since the last fires events took place, to different fire severities, or to different post-fire erosion processes in the studied soils.     

长期施肥对潮土团聚体有机碳分子结构的影响

采取长期施用有机肥（CM）、一半化肥氮和一半有机肥氮（HCM）、化肥（NPK）和不施肥对照（CK）的土壤,用湿筛法分为大团聚体（2000~250 μm）、微团聚体（250~53 μm）和粉砂 黏粒组分（<53 μm）,利用固态13C-核磁共振技术分析了土壤和团聚体中有机质的分子结构特征。结果表明,随着团聚体粒径减小,烷基碳/烷氧碳比值逐渐提高,并与土壤C/N呈显著负相关（R2 = 0.421,p = 0.022）,表明随着团聚体粒径减小,有机质的分解程度不断增加。与对照土壤相比,长期施用有机肥（HCM和CM处理）提高了土壤中烷氧碳和羰基碳的相对含量,烷氧碳的增加主要是由于大团聚体中甲氧基和含氮烷基碳相对含量的增加,羰基碳则主要在大团聚体和微团聚体中积聚。施用化肥土壤提高了烷氧碳和烷基碳的相对含量,烷氧碳增加主要是由于大团聚体中甲氧基和含氮烷基碳以及微团聚体中含氧烷基碳相对含量的提高,烷基碳增加主要发生在大团聚体。有机肥和化肥处理土壤中芳基碳相对含量降低1.8%~4.6%,主要是大团聚体和微团聚体中芳基碳比例下降引起的。而在粉砂 黏粒组分中芳基碳和酚基碳均增加,烷基碳相对含量降低5.9%~7.1%,表明施肥更利于芳香碳在小粒径组分中积累,减弱烷基碳在小粒径组分中的积累。结果表明长期施用有机肥可通过大团聚体和微团聚体物理保护肥料带入的大量碳水化合物和有机酸从而提高土壤有机碳含量。     

Integrated agricultural management practice improves soil quality in Northeast China

ABSTRACT

Sustainable agricultural management practices have attracted increasing attention due to their significant roles in benefiting the functions and sustainability of agro-ecosystems. An integrated agricultural practice (IP) in a maize cropping system was developed by changing row spacing, adopting no-tillage and residue return in the Northeast China. A 12-year field study was carried out to evaluate the effect of IP and conventional practice (CP) on soil physical properties, microbial biomass and enzyme activity during the cropping season. The results showed that soil organic matter under IP was increased by 17.4, 9.88 and 6.69% in June, August and October, respectively, than CP. IP enhanced microbial biomass C (by 31.7, 25.1 and 30.4% in June, August and October) and activities of invertase, urease and phosphatase (by 27.2–38.0, 78.9–182 and 9.8–29.0%) compared to CP, possibly attributing to an increase in the soil microbial community. Furthermore, the soil pH, water content, nitrogen and phosphorus contents, microbial biomass and some specific enzyme activities varied with sampling time. It is concluded that IP improved soil quality and health by increasing organic matter content and microbial biomass and activity in maize field in Northeast China, suggesting that IP is a feasible management technology for sustainable agriculture.     

Plant biomass influences rhizosphere priming effects on soil organic matter decomposition in two differently managed soils

We used a continuous labeling method of naturally ¹³C-depleted CO₂ in a growth chamber to test for rhizosphere effects on soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition. Two C3 plant species, soybean (Glycine max) and sunflower (Helianthus annus), were grown in two previously differently managed soils, an organically farmed soil and a soil from an annual grassland. We maintained a constant atmospheric CO₂ concentration at 400±5 ppm and δ¹³C signature at −24.4‰ by regulating the flow of naturally ¹³C-depleted CO₂ and CO₂-free air into the growth chamber, which allowed us to separate new plant-derived CO₂-C from original soil-derived CO₂-C in soil respiration. Rhizosphere priming effects on SOM decomposition, i.e., differences in soil-derived CO₂-C between planted and non-planted treatments, were significantly different between the two soils, but not between the two plant species. Soil-derived CO₂-C efflux in the organically farmed soil increased up to 61% compared to the no-plant control, while the annual grassland soil showed a negligible increase (up to 5% increase), despite an overall larger efflux of soil-derived CO₂-C and total soil C content. Differences in rhizosphere priming effects on SOM decomposition between the two soils could be largely explained by differences in plant biomass, and in particular leaf biomass, explaining 49% and 74% of the variation in primed soil C among soils and plant species, respectively. Nitrogen uptake rates by soybean and sunflower was relatively high compared to soil C respiration and associated N mineralization, while inorganic N pools were significantly depleted in the organic farm soil by the end of the experiment. Despite relatively large increases in SOM decomposition caused by rhizosphere effects in the organic farm soil, the fast-growing soybean and sunflower plants gained little extra N from the increase in SOM decomposition caused by rhizosphere effects. We conclude that rhizosphere priming effects of annual plants on SOM decomposition are largely driven by plant biomass, especially in soils of high fertility that can sustain high plant productivity.     

C and N natural abundance of the soil microbial biomass

Stable isotope analysis is a powerful tool in the study of soil organic matter formation. It is often observed that more decomposed soil organic matter is ¹³C, and especially ¹⁵N-enriched relative to fresh litter and recent organic matter. We investigated whether this shift in isotope composition relates to the isotope composition of the microbial biomass, an important source for soil organic matter. We developed a new approach to determine the natural abundance C and N isotope composition of the microbial biomass across a broad range of soil types, vegetation, and climates. We found consistently that the soil microbial biomass was ¹⁵N-enriched relative to the total (3.2 ‰) and extractable N pools (3.7 ‰), and ¹³C-enriched relative to the extractable C pool (2.5 ‰). The microbial biomass was also ¹³C-enriched relative to total C for soils that exhibited a C3-plant signature (1.6 ‰), but ¹³C-depleted for soils with a C4 signature (−1.1 ‰). The latter was probably associated with an increase of annual C3 forbs in C4 grasslands after an extreme drought. These findings are in agreement with the proposed contribution of microbial products to the stabilized soil organic matter and may help explain the shift in isotope composition during soil organic matter formation.     

Post-harvest residue management effects on recalcitrant carbon pools and plant biomarkers within the soil heavy fraction in Pinus radiata plantations

Forest soils contain about 30% of terrestrial carbon (C) and so knowledge of the influence of forest management on stability of soil C pools is important for understanding the global C cycle. Here we present the changes of soil C pools in the 0-5 cm layer in two second-rotation Pinus radiata (D.Don) plantations which were subjected to three contrasting harvest residue management treatments in New Zealand. These treatments included whole-tree harvest plus forest floor removal (defined as forest floor removal hereafter), whole-tree, and stem-only harvest. Soil samples were collected 5, 10 and 15 years after tree planting at Kinleith Forest (on sandy loam soils) and 4, 12 and 20 years after tree planting at Woodhill Forest (on sandy soils). These soils were then physically divided into light (labile) and heavy (stable) pools based on density fractionation (1.70 g cm⁻³). At Woodhill, soil C mass in the heavy fraction was significantly greater in the whole-tree and stem-only harvest plots than the forest floor removal plots in all sampling years. At Kinleith, the soil C mass in the heavy fraction was also greater in the stem-only harvest plots than the forest floor removal plots at year 15. The larger stable soil C pools with increased residue return was supported by analyses of the chemical composition and plant biomarkers in the soil organic matter (SOM) heavy fractions using NMR and GC/MS. At Woodhill, alkyl C, cutin-, suberin- and lignin-derived C contents in the SOM heavy fraction were significantly greater in the whole-tree and stem-only harvest plots than in the forest floor removal plots in all sampling years. At Kinleith, alkyl C (year 15), cutin-derived C (year 5 and 15) and lignin-derived C (Year 5 and 10) contents in the SOM heavy fraction were significantly greater in stem-only harvest plots than in plots where the forest floor was removed. The analyses of plant C biomarkers and soil δ¹³C in the light and heavy fractions of SOM indicate that the increased stable soil C in the heavy fraction with increased residue return might be derived from a greater input of recalcitrant C in the residue substrate.     

Chemical characteristics of glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) extracted from soils of varying organic matter content

Glomalin is described in the literature as a N-linked glycoprotein and the putative gene product of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF). Since the link between glomalin and various protein fractions in soil is not yet clearly defined, glomalin-related soil protein (GRSP) more appropriately describes glomalin's existence in natural organic matter (NOM). The objective of this study was to examine the chemical characteristics of GRSP present in several mineral and organic soils of varying organic carbon content. GRSP was isolated using high temperature sodium citrate extraction followed by either trichloroacetic acid (TCA) or hydrochloric acid (HCl) precipitation. GRSP was characterized by quantitative solid-state ¹³C DPMAS NMR, infrared (IR) spectroscopy, elemental analysis, and the Bradford assay for protein content. GRSP accounted for 25% and 52% of total C in the mineral soils and organic soil, respectively. Molar C/N and H/C ratios reveal that GRSP has less nitrogen than bovine serum albumin (BSA), and that GRSP extracted from the Pahokee peat soil possessed a more unsaturated, and thus aromatic character relative to the mineral soil GRSP, respectively. GRSP's high aromatic (42-49%) and carboxyl (24-30%) carbon contents and low aliphatic (4-11%) and carbohydrate-type carbon contents (4-16%) suggests that GRSP does not resemble a typical glycoprotein. In fact, the NMR spectra of GRSP closely resemble that of humic acid. GRSP extracted from mineral and organic soils possessed the same NMR fingerprint regardless of the precipitation method used (i.e., either TCA or HCl). It is likely that the current GRSP extraction methods, because of their similarity to the method used to extract humic acid, are coextracting both materials.     

Fungal biomass production and turnover in soil estimated using the acetate-in-ergosterol technique

We report the first attempt to estimate fungal biomass production in soil by correlating relative fungal growth rates (i.e., acetate incorporation into ergosterol) with fungal biomass increase (i.e., ergosterol) following amendments with dried alfalfa or barley straw in soil. The conversion factor obtained was then used in unamended soil, resulting in fungal biomass productions of 10-12 μg C g⁻¹ soil, yielding fungal turnover times between 130 and 150 days. Using a conversion factor from alfalfa-treated soil only resulted in two times higher estimates for biomass production and consequently lower turnover times. Comparing fungal biomass production with basal respiration indicated that these calculations overestimated the former. Still, the turnover times of fungal biomass in soil were in the same range as turnover times estimated in aquatic systems. The slow turnover of fungal biomass contrasts with the short turnover times found for bacteria. The study thus presents empirical data substantiating the theoretical division of bacteria and fungi into a fast and a slow energy channel, respectively, in the soil food web.     

Cesium and soil carbon in a small agricultural watershed

Scientific, political, and social interests have developed recently in the concept of using agricultural soils to sequester carbon. Studies supporting this concept indicate that soil erosion and subsequent redeposition of eroded soils in the same field may establish an ecosystem disequilibrium that promotes the buildup of carbon on agricultural landscapes. The problem is to determine the patterns of soil erosion and redeposition on the landscape and to relate these to soil carbon patterns. Radioactive ¹³⁷cesium (¹³⁷Cs) can be used to estimate soil erosion patterns and, more importantly, redeposition patterns at the field level. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between ¹³⁷Cs, soil erosion, and soil carbon patterns on a small agricultural watershed. Profiles of soils from an upland area and soils in an adjacent riparian system were collected in 5 cm increments and the concentrations of ¹³⁷Cs and carbon were determined. ¹³⁷Cs and carbon were uniformly mixed in the upper 15–20 cm of upland soils. ¹³⁷Cs (Bq g⁻¹) and carbon (%) in the upland soils were significantly correlated (r²=0.66). Carbon content of the 0–20 cm layer was higher (1.4±0.3%) in areas of soil deposition than carbon content (1.1±0.3%) in areas of soil erosion as determined by the ¹³⁷Cs technique. These data suggest that measurements of ¹³⁷Cs in the soils can be useful for understanding carbon distribution patterns in surface soil. Carbon content of the upland soils ranged from 0.5 to 1.9% with an average of 1.2±0.4% in the 0–20 cm layer while carbon below this upper tilled layer (20–30 cm) ranged from 0.2 to 1.5% with an average of 0.5±0.3%. Total carbon was 2.66 and 3.20 kg m⁻² in the upper 20 cm and upper 30 cm of the upland soils, respectively. Carbon content of the 0–20 cm layer in the riparian system ranged from 1.1 to 67.0% with an average 11.7±17.1%. Carbon content below 20 cm ranged from 1.8 to 79.3% with an average of 18.3±17.5%. Soil carbon in the upper 20 cm of the riparian profile was 10.1 and 15.0 kg m⁻² in the upper 30 cm of the riparian profiles. This is an increase of organic carbon by a factor of 3.8 and 4.7 for the upper 20 cm and upper 30 cm of the riparian profiles, respectively, when compared to the upland soil profiles.     

Soil carbon saturation: Implications for measurable carbon pool dynamics in long-term incubations

The efficiency of agricultural management practices to store SOC depends on C input level and how far a soil is from its saturation level (i.e. saturation deficit). The C saturation hypothesis suggests an ultimate soil C stabilization capacity defined by four SOM pools capable of C saturation: (1) non-protected, (2) physically protected, (3) chemically protected and (4) biochemically protected. We tested if C saturation deficit and the amount of added C influenced SOC storage in measurable soil fractions corresponding to the conceptual chemical, physical, biochemical, and non-protected C pools. We added two levels of ¹³C-labeled residue to soil samples from seven agricultural sites that were either closer to (i.e., A-horizon) or further from (i.e., C-horizon) their C saturation level and incubated them for 2.5 years. Residue-derived C stabilization was, in most sites, directly related to C saturation deficit but mechanisms of C stabilization differed between the chemically and biochemically protected pools. The physically protected C pool showed a varied effect of C saturation deficit on ¹³C stabilization, due to opposite behavior of the POM and mineral fractions. We found distinct behavior between unaggregated and aggregated mineral-associated fractions emphasizing the mechanistic difference between the chemically and physically protected C-pools. To accurately predict SOC dynamics and stabilization, C saturation of soil C pools, particularly the chemically and biochemically protected pools, should be considered.     

Moisture modulates rhizosphere effects on C decomposition in two different soil types

While it is well known that soil moisture directly affects microbial activity and soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition, it is unclear if the presence of plants alters these effects through rhizosphere processes. We studied soil moisture effects on SOM decomposition with and without sunflower and soybean. Plants were grown in two different soil types with soil moisture contents of 45% and 85% of field capacity in a greenhouse experiment. We continuously labeled plants with depleted ¹³C, which allowed us to separate plant-derived CO₂-C from original soil-derived CO₂-C in soil respiration measurements. We observed an overall increase in soil-derived CO₂-C efflux in the presence of plants (priming effect) in both soils. On average a greater priming effect was found in the high soil moisture treatment (up to 76% increase in soil-derived CO₂-C compared to control) than in the low soil moisture treatment (up to 52% increase). Greater plant-derived CO₂-C and plant biomass in the high soil moisture treatment contributed to greater priming effects, but priming effects remained significantly higher in the high moisture treatment than in the low moisture treatment after correcting for the effects of plant-derived CO₂-C and plant biomass. The response to soil moisture particularly occurred in the sandy loam soil by the end of the experiment. Possibly, production of root exudates increased with increased soil moisture content. Root exudation of labile C may also have become more effective in stimulating microbial decomposition in the higher soil moisture treatment and sandy loam soil. Our results indicate that moisture conditions significantly modulate rhizosphere effects on SOM decomposition.     

Effects of long-term application of various organic amendments on soil particulate organic matter storage and chemical stabilisation of vertisol soil

Current understanding of the effects of long-term application of various organic amendments on soil particulate organic matter (POM) storage and chemical stabilisation remains limited. Therefore, we collected soil samples from the soil profile (0–100?cm) under six treatments in a 31-year long-term fertilisation experiment: no fertiliser (CK), mineral fertilisers (NPK), mineral fertilisers plus 3.8 or 7.5?t?ha^?1?year^?1 (fresh base) the amount of wheat straw (1/2SNPK and SNPK) and mineral fertilisers plus swine or cattle manure (PMNPK and CMNPK). Long-term incorporation of wheat straw and livestock manure amendments significantly (p?<?0.05) increased crop yield and sustainable yield index, and POM storage compared with CK and NPK treatments. The mole ratios of H/C in the POM under organic amendment treatments significantly (p?<?0.05) decreased by 13.8% and 37.1%, respectively, compared with the NPK treatment. Similarly, solid state NMR spectroscopy showed that the O–alkyl carbon content of POM was greatly decreased, whereas aromatic carbon contents and alkyl to O–alkyl carbon ratios were substantially increased under PMNPK and CMNPK treatments. In conclusion, we recommend long-term livestock manure application as a preferred strategy for enhancing POM quantity and quality (chemical stability), and crop yield of vertisol soil in northern China.     

Sources of CO2 efflux from soil and review of partitioning methods

Five main biogenic sources of CO₂ efflux from soils have been distinguished and described according to their turnover rates and the mean residence time of carbon. They are root respiration, rhizomicrobial respiration, decomposition of plant residues, the priming effect induced by root exudation or by addition of plant residues, and basal respiration by microbial decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM). These sources can be grouped in several combinations to summarize CO₂ efflux from the soil including: root-derived CO₂, plant-derived CO₂, SOM-derived CO₂, rhizosphere respiration, heterotrophic microbial respiration (respiration by heterotrophs), and respiration by autotrophs. These distinctions are important because without separation of SOM-derived CO₂ from plant-derived CO₂, measurements of total soil respiration have very limited value for evaluation of the soil as a source or sink of atmospheric CO₂ and for interpreting the sources of CO₂ and the fate of carbon within soils and ecosystems. Additionally, the processes linked to the five sources of CO₂ efflux from soil have various responses to environmental variables and consequently to global warming. This review describes the basic principles and assumptions of the following methods which allow SOM-derived and root-derived CO₂ efflux to be separated under laboratory and field conditions: root exclusion techniques, shading and clipping, tree girdling, regression, component integration, excised roots and insitu root respiration; continuous and pulse labeling, ¹³C natural abundance and FACE, and radiocarbon dating and bomb-¹⁴C. A short sections cover the separation of the respiration of autotrophs and that of heterotrophs, i.e. the separation of actual root respiration from microbial respiration, as well as methods allowing the amount of CO₂ evolved by decomposition of plant residues and by priming effects to be estimated. All these methods have been evaluated according to their inherent disturbance of the ecosystem and C fluxes, and their versatility under various conditions. The shortfalls of existing approaches and the need for further development and standardization of methods are highlighted.     

Soil carbon turnover and sequestration in native subtropical tree plantations

Approximately 30% of global soil organic carbon (SOC) is stored in subtropical and tropical ecosystems but it is being rapidly lost due to continuous deforestation. Tree plantations are advocated as a C sink, however, little is known about rates of C turnover and sequestration into soil organic matter under subtropical and tropical tree plantations. We studied changes in SOC in a chronosequence of hoop pine (Araucaria cunninghamii) plantations established on former rainforest sites in seasonally dry subtropical Australia. SOC, δ¹³C, and light fraction organic C (LF C<1.6 g cm⁻³) were determined in plantations, secondary rainforest and pasture. We calculated loss of rainforest SOC after clearing for pasture using an isotope mixing model, and used the decay rate of rainforest-derived C to predict input of hoop pine-derived C into the soil. Total SOC stocks to 100 cm depth were significantly (P<0.01) higher under rainforest (241 t ha⁻¹) and pasture (254 t ha⁻¹) compared to hoop pine (176-211 t ha⁻¹). We calculated that SOC derived from hoop pine inputs ranged from 32% (25 year plantation) to 61% (63 year plantation) of total SOC in the 0-30 cm soil layer, but below 30 cm all C originated from rainforest. These results were compared to simulations made by the Century soil organic matter model. The Century model simulations showed that lower C stocks under hoop pine plantations were due to reduced C inputs to the slow turnover C pool, such that this pool only recovers to within 45% of the original rainforest C pool after 63 years. This may indicate differences in soil C stabilization mechanisms under hoop pine plantations compared with rainforest and pasture. These results demonstrate that subtropical hoop pine plantations do not rapidly sequester SOC into long-term storage pools, and that alternative plantation systems may need to be investigated to achieve greater soil C sequestration.     

Turnover of soil organic matter and of microbial biomass under C3-C4 vegetation change: Consideration of C fractionation and preferential substrate utilization

Two processes contribute to changes of the δ¹³C signature in soil pools: ¹³C fractionation per se and preferential microbial utilization of various substrates with different δ¹³C signature. These two processes were disentangled by simultaneously tracking δ¹³C in three pools - soil organic matter (SOM), microbial biomass, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) - and in CO₂ efflux during incubation of 1) soil after C₃-C₄ vegetation change, and 2) the reference C₃ soil.The study was done on the Ap horizon of a loamy Gleyic Cambisol developed under C₃ vegetation. Miscanthus giganteus - a perennial C₄ plant - was grown for 12 years, and the δ¹³C signature was used to distinguish between ‘old’ SOM (>12 years) and ‘recent’ Miscanthus-derived C (<12 years). The differences in δ¹³C signature of the three C pools and of CO₂ in the reference C₃ soil were less than 1‰, and only δ¹³C of microbial biomass was significantly different compared to other pools. Nontheless, the neglecting of isotopic fractionation can cause up to 10% of errors in calculations. In contrast to the reference soil, the δ¹³C of all pools in the soil after C₃-C₄ vegetation change was significantly different. Old C contributed only 20% to the microbial biomass but 60% to CO₂. This indicates that most of the old C was decomposed by microorganisms catabolically, without being utilized for growth. Based on δ¹³C changes in DOC, CO₂ and microbial biomass during 54 days of incubation in Miscanthus and reference soils, we concluded that the main process contributing to changes of the δ¹³C signature in soil pools was preferential utilization of recent versus old C (causing an up to 9.1‰ shift in δ¹³C values) and not ¹³C fractionation per se.Based on the δ¹³C changes in SOM, we showed that the estimated turnover time of old SOM increased by two years per year in 9 years after the vegetation change. The relative increase in the turnover rate of recent microbial C was 3 times faster than that of old C indicating preferential utilization of available recent C versus the old C.Combining long-term field observations with soil incubation reveals that the turnover time of C in microbial biomass was 200 times faster than in total SOM. Our study clearly showed that estimating the residence time of easily degradable microbial compounds and biomarkers should be done at time scales reflecting microbial turnover times (days) and not those of bulk SOM turnover (years and decades). This is necessary because the absence of C reutilization is a prerequisite for correct estimation of SOM turnover. We conclude that comparing the δ¹³C signature of linked pools helps calculate the relative turnover of old and recent pools.     

The fate of catechol in soil as affected by earthworms and clay

The effect of endogeic earthworms (Octolasion tyrtaeum) and the availability of clay (Montmorillonite) on the mobilization and stabilization of uniformly ¹⁴C-labelled catechol mixed into arable and forest soil was investigated in a short- and a long-term microcosm experiment. By using arable and forest soil the effect of earthworms and clay in soils differing in the saturation of the mineral matrix with organic matter was investigated. In the short-term experiment microcosms were destructively sampled when the soil had been transformed into casts. In the long-term experiment earthworm casts produced during 7 days and non-processed soil were incubated for three further months. Production of CO₂ and ¹⁴CO₂ were measured at regular intervals. Accumulation of ¹⁴C in humic fractions (DOM, fulvic acids, humic acids and humin) of the casts and the non-processed soil and incorporation of ¹⁴C into earthworm tissue were determined.Incorporation of ¹⁴C into earthworm tissue was low, with 0.1 and 0.44% recovered in the short- and long-term experiment, respectively, suggesting that endogeic earthworms preferentially assimilate non-phenolic soil carbon. Cumulative production of CO₂-C was significantly increased in casts produced from the arable soil, but lower in casts produced from the forest soil; generally, the production of CO₂-C was higher in forest than in arable soil. Both soils differed in the pattern of ¹⁴CO₂-C production; initially it was higher in the forest soil than in the arable soil, whereas later the opposite was true. Octolasion tyrtaeum did not affect ¹⁴CO₂-C production in the forest soil, but increased it in the arable soil early in the experiment; clay counteracted this effect. Clay and O. tyrtaeum did not affect integration of ¹⁴C into humic fractions of the forest soil. In contrast, in the arable soil O. tyrtaeum increased the amount of ¹⁴C in the labile fractions, whereas clay increased it in the humin fraction.The results indicate that endogeic earthworms increase microbial activity and thus mineralization of phenolic compounds, whereas clay decreases it presumably by binding phenolic compounds to clay particles when passing through the earthworm gut. Endogeic earthworms and clay are only of minor importance for the fate of catechol in soils with high organic matter, clay and microbial biomass concentrations, but in contrast affect the fate of phenolic compounds in low clay soils.     

Long-term nitrogen additions increased surface soil carbon concentration in a forest plantation despite elevated decomposition

Forests cover one-third of the Earth’s land surface and account for 30-40% of soil carbon (C). Despite numerous studies, questions still remain about the factors controlling forest soil C turnover. Present understanding of global C cycle is limited by considerable uncertainty over the potential response of soil C dynamics to rapid nitrogen (N) enrichment of ecosystems, mainly from fuel combustion and fertilizer application. Here, we present a 15-year-long field study and show an average increase of 14.6% in soil C concentration in the 0-5 cm mineral soil layer in N fertilized (defined as N+ hereafter) sub-plots of a second-rotation Pinus radiata plantation in New Zealand compared to control sub-plots. The results of ¹⁴C and lignin analyses of soil C indicate that N additions significantly accelerate decomposition of labile and recalcitrant soil C. Using an annual-time step model, we estimated the soil C turnover time. In the N+ sub-plots, soil C in the light (a density < 1.70 g cm⁻³) and heavy fractions had the mean residence times of 23 and 67 yr, respectively, which are lower than those in the control sub-plots (36 and 133 yr in the light and heavy fractions, respectively). The commonly used lignin oxidation indices (vanillic acid to vanillin and syringic acid to syringaldehyde ratios) were significantly greater in the N+ sub-plots than in the control sub-plots, suggesting increased lignin decomposition due to fertilization. The estimation of C inputs to forest floor and δ¹³C analysis of soil C fractions indicate that the observed buildup of surface soil C concentrations in the N+ sub-plots can be attributed to increased inputs of C mass from forest debris. We conclude that long-term N additions in productive forests may increase C storage in both living tree biomass and soils despite elevated decomposition of soil organic matter.     

Soil properties and the macrofauna community in abandoned irrigated rice fields of northeastern Argentina

This study compared soil physical, chemical, and biological characteristics between natural grassland and recently abandoned rice fields in order to identify those variables that might explain the observed increase of Camponotus punctulatus anthills in abandoned rice paddy fields from Northern Argentina. Mainly due to a reduction of macropores and mesopores, overall porosity decreased by around 6% and bulk density was about 7% greater, in the 0- to 10- and 10- to 20-cm layers of the abandoned rice fields. Carbon and nitrogen content from organic matter increased (29% and 41% respectively for the 0- to 20-cm horizon) during cultivation but decreased (38% and 24%) 2 years after the last rice harvest. Forty percent of natural grassland-organic matter and 30% of abandoned rice-organic matter mineralized in less than 2 years. There was a different community structure between the abandoned rice fields and the undisturbed natural grassland and only a 20.6% (i.e. only 19 species from a total of 92) overlap in species composition. The abundance of macrofauna was greater in abandoned rice fields (2,208 individuals m^–2) in comparison to natural grasslands (288 ind m^–2) due to higher densities of small earthworms and Camponotus punctulatus ants; however, the Shannon index showed lower values in comparison to natural grasslands. Earthworms and C. punctulatus in the abandoned rice fields showed a change in their ¹³C signature indicating a switch in diet from natural grassland organic matter (C4) to organic matter from rice (C3). Our results indicate that the effects of rice cultivation practices did not seem to produce any physical or trophic limitations to recolonization by the macrofauna. It seems that changes in overall soil conditions have favored a change in the construction behavior of C. punctulatus which, in combination with population increases, could explain the explosion in number of anthills.