Masked,diluted and drowned out: how global seafood trade weakens signals from marine ecosystems

Nearly 40% of seafood is traded internationally and an even bigger proportion is affected by international trade, yet scholarship on marine fisheries has focused on global trends in stocks and catches, or on dynamics of individual fisheries, with limited attention to the link between individual fisheries, global trade and distant consumers. This paper examines the usefulness of fish price as a feedback signal to consumers about the state of fisheries and marine ecosystems. We suggest that the current nature of fisheries systems and global markets prevent transmission of such price signals from source fisheries to consumers. We propose several mechanisms that combine to weaken price signals, and present one example – the North Sea cod – to show how these mechanisms can be tested. The lack of a reliable price feedback to consumers represents a challenge for sustainable fisheries governance. We therefore propose three complimentary approaches to address the missing feedback: (i) strengthening information flow through improved traceability and visibility of individual fishers to consumers, (ii) capitalizing on the changing seafood trade structures and (iii) bypassing and complementing market mechanisms by directly targeting citizens and political actors regarding marine environmental issues through publicity and information campaigns. These strategies each have limitations and thus need to be pursued together to address the challenge of sustainability in global marine fisheries.     

Linking Northeast Pacific recruitment synchrony to environmental variability

We investigated the hypothesis that synchronous recruitment is due to a shared susceptibility to environmental processes using stock–recruitment residuals for 52 marine fish stocks within three Northeast Pacific large marine ecosystems: the Eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands, Gulf of Alaska, and California Current. There was moderate coherence in exceptionally strong and weak year‐classes and correlations across stocks. Based on evidence of synchrony from these analyses, we used Bayesian hierarchical models to relate recruitment to environmental covariates for groups of stocks that may be similarly influenced by environmental processes based on their life histories. There were consistent relationships among stocks to the covariates, especially within the Gulf of Alaska and California Current. The best Gulf of Alaska model included Northeast Pacific sea surface height as a predictor of recruitment, and was particularly strong for stocks dependent on cross‐shelf transport during the larval phase for recruitment. In the California Current the best‐fit model included San Francisco coastal sea level height as a predictor, with higher recruitment for many stocks corresponding to anomalously high sea level the year before spawning and low sea level the year of spawning. The best Eastern Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands model included several environmental variables as covariates and there was some consistent response across stocks to these variables. Future research may be able to utilize these across‐stock environmental influences, in conjunction with an understanding of ecological processes important across early life history stages, to improve identification of environmental drivers of recruitment.     

Patterns of population variability in marine fish stocks

Exploited marine fish and invertebrate stocks fluctuate in a myriad of complex patterns, exhibiting variability on interannual, decadal, and longer time scales. To characterize various patterns of variation, time series of catch, catch per unit effort, or biomass from 30 stocks were examined with a variety of statistical methods including autocorrelation analysis and Lowess smoothing. A hierarchical cluster analysis classified the stocks into six identifiable groups: steady-state; low-variation, low-frequency; cyclic; irregular; high-variation, high-frequency; and spasmodic. The observed patterns are consistent with life history traits; for example, stocks with high variability are generally small, pelagic species whereas low-variability stocks are generally slow-growing, demersal fish. Each of the six general patterns of variability can be produced from a simple multiple-equilibrium population model by varying the intrinsic rate of population growth, and the time scale and amplitude of environmental variability. Suitable management policies depend on the type of variation observed, and the vast majority of stocks examined do not correspond to the steady-state assumptions of classical fisheries models. For example, management of spasmodic stocks may alternate between periods of active exploitation and periods of rebuilding, a process enhanced by the existence of alternative fisheries.     

Coping with information gaps in stock productivity for rebuilding and achieving maximum sustainable yield for grouper–snapper fisheries

Maintaining fish stocks at optimal levels is a goal of fisheries management worldwide; yet, this goal remains somewhat elusive, even in countries with well‐established fishery data collection, assessment and management systems. Achieving this goal often requires knowledge of stock productivity, which can be challenging to obtain due to both data limitations and the complexities of marine populations. Thus, scientific information can lag behind fishery policy expectations in this regard. Steepness of the stock–recruitment relationship affects delineation of target biomass level reference points, a problem which is often circumvented by using a proxy fishing mortality rate (F) in place of the rate associated with maximum sustainable yield (F_MSY). Because MSY is achieved in the long term only if an F proxy is happenstance with F_MSY, characterizing productivity information probabilistically can support reference point delineation. For demersal stocks of equatorial and tropical regions, we demonstrate how the use of a prior probability distribution for steepness can help identify suitable F proxies. F proxies that reduce spawning biomass per recruit to a target percentage of the unfished quantity (i.e., SPR) of 40% to 50% SPR had the highest probabilities of achieving long‐term MSY. Rebuilding was addressed through closed‐loop simulation of broken‐stick harvest control rules. Similar biomass recovery times were demonstrated for these rules in comparison with more information‐intensive rebuilding plans. Our approach stresses science‐led advancement of policy through a lens of information limitations, which can make the assumptions behind rebuilding plans more transparent and align management expectations with biological outcomes.     

Conserving marine biodiversity on the African coast: Implications of a terrestrial perspective

Conservation principles developed for terrestrial habitats are frequently inapplicable in marine situations. This dichotomy arises because of different characteristics of the substratum and the existence of water as a ubiquitous marine dispersal medium. Physical differences are manifest in biological differences including reproductive mode, range requirements and levels of endemism. Marine systems differ further from terrestrial ones in that they have been subject to a very limited anthropogenic fragmentation, in contrast to land where many habitats have become highly fragmented. Estuaries and coral reefs, however, are naturally fragmented and particularly vulnerable because their substrata are strongly influenced by biological processes which are easily disrupted. One of the greatest threats to life in the sea is resource exploitation by man. In Africa, marine conservation is secondary to terrestrial conservation—only four countries in sub-Saharan Africa have marine reserves. Marine reserves are effective in increasing population sizes of exploited stocks and supplementing stocks in adjacent areas through emigration. They also have the potential to provide recruits to exploited areas. Biogeographic patterns can be used to site marine reserves. We propose a middle/edge arrangement of ‘biodiversity reserves’, linked to biogeographical regions. Such reserves would achieve conservation of both representativeness (middle) and high diversity areas (edge). As a necessary corollary, we also suggest a second tier of reserves which has the specific purpose of improving local yields of exploited species. The sizes of biodiversity reserves should be determined by local habitat heterogeneity. Second-tier reserves should be designed to maximize their benefit to adjacent areas while minimizing their size.     

Natural mortality augments population fluctuations of forage fish

Forage fish are a vital part of marine ecosystems, partly by supporting some of the largest fisheries worldwide, but also due to their role in food webs as prey for larger fish and other predators. One of the unresolved questions about forage fish dynamics is the causes of their significant temporal fluctuations. These fluctuations are often attributed to changes in environmental conditions, but direct correlations have proven hard to find. Here, we show how time‐varying predation mortality additionally plays a substantial role in forage fish population fluctuations. By analysing 10 stocks that have estimates of natural mortality changes through time, we find that natural mortality on average increases as population biomass declines towards a trough, and to a lesser degree decreases, when their biomass is growing towards a peak. While depensatory mortality was dominant on average in biomass dynamics leading up to peaks or troughs, some of the stocks exhibited compensatory mortality emphasizing variation between stocks. Furthermore, we show that the magnitude of natural mortality and productivity is generally higher than fishing mortality. The results underscore the importance of top‐down control on the dynamics of forage fish. We conclude that a holistic ecosystem analysis is required for a better ecological understanding of forage fish dynamics.     

Effect of feed and feeding in the culture of salmonids on the marine aquatic environment: a synthesis for European aquaculture

While marine aquaculture has grown rapidly, so have concerns regarding the environmental impacts caused by the industry. In particular, increasing discharges of solid and dissolved fish excretions, nutrients and therapeutic chemicals have coincided with greater public awareness of the possibility of environmental damage. This has stimulated a number of criticisms, drawn from a wide spectrum of interests, ranging from the use of natural fish stocks to produce fish meal for aqua feeds to the effects of enhanced nutrient input on the coastal marine environment. The present study reviews available information on the environmental effects of feeding practices in salmonid aquaculture in Europe. Accumulation of waste food and fish faecal material results in changes in the sediment under fish cages, characterized by a low redox potential, high content of organic material and accumulation of nitrogenous and phosphorous compounds. Although significant environmental impacts have been reported in the literature at distances of up to 100 m from the cages, in general such impacts are reported to be localized to within 20–50 m around the cages. For farmed salmon and trout, mass balance models have been developed for nitrogen and phosphorus, indicating that 50% of the nitrogen and 28% of the phosphorus supplied with the food is wasted in dissolved form. The maximum nutrient release can be estimated from the hydrographic conditions in the immediate vicinity of the farm, such as water volume, tidal water exchange and currents. At present production levels, improvements in the feeding efficiency and feed quality of aquafeeds could reduce waste and consequent environmental impacts.     

Socio-cultural context of fishers’ participation in coastal resources management in Anini-y,Antique in west central Philippines

The vicious cycle of poverty, overfishing and resource degradation in coastal communities in the Philippines calls for action that will address the problem of declining fish catch and degraded fish habitats. The literature has shown that an efficient and effective coastal management program can be instrumental in approaching this problem. In order to secure food and livelihood of fishers, the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center/Aquaculture Department collaborated with the local government of Anini-y, Antique to develop a sustainable utilization of natural marine resources through sea ranching of abalone within the Nogas Island marine protected area. Establishing a marine protected area is a means of conserving natural stocks while sea ranching is considered an effective strategy that can increase fishery resources. The two management schemes are considered as effective coastal resources management strategies. The success of a sea-ranching project is dependent not only on biophysical but also on socioeconomic factors as determinants of community participation and cooperation. A social assessment was conducted to determine the fishers’ socio-cultural characteristics, their perceptions of their coastal resources and knowledge on how to effectively manage these coastal resources. The fishers’ awareness on fishing regulations and the extent of their participation in community's coastal resources management activities were also determined. Data were collected from a household survey using a semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions and in-depth interviews with key informants. The fishers generally scored low in almost all aspects of their socioeconomic wellbeing. Most fishers perceived that their coastal resources were in a bad condition which they attributed to illegal and commercial fishing, increasing number of fishers and the poor enforcement of fishery regulations. However, the weighted mean scores of their knowledge on coastal resources management, awareness to fishery regulations and participation in community coastal resource management activities were average. This implied that fishers when trained and developed can become potential partners for effective coastal resources management programs.     

Simulated effects of target switching on yield and sustainability of fish stocks

Many fisheries have alternative target stocks and selectively exploit the one with the highest expected income. Although target switching is very common in practice, few attempts have thus far been made to study target switching. In this paper, we investigated the potential effects of target switching on the yield and sustainability of fish stocks by equilibrium analysis and stochastic simulation. The equilibrium analysis showed that we can increase F_extinction by switching. The stochastic simulation revealed that well-planned target switching increases yields and simultaneously decreases the risk of the stocks collapsing. Target switching decreases fishing pressure on the less-abundant stock and helps the declined stock to recover. Therefore, the minimum stock level is increased by switching. As switching keeps both stocks at productive levels, the total yield is increased by switching. Target switching is effective, especially when the catchability increases with the depletion of a stock population. Target switching depends on the availability of information on stock abundance. Thus, we examined the vulnerability of switching to stock assessment errors. If the stock assessment is very uncertain, then little or no switching is recommended. Target switching can have substantial effects on fisheries. Therefore, we must investigate the mechanisms of switching and incorporate switching into management plans.     

Which design elements of individual quota fisheries help to achieve management objectives?

Individual quota (IQ) management systems in commercial marine fisheries are highly diverse, differing in the security, durability and exclusivity of the harvesting privilege and the transferability of quota units. This diversity in the degree of harvest rights may influence the effectiveness of IQ fisheries to meet management objectives. We conducted a global meta‐analysis of 167 stocks managed under IQs to test whether the strength of harvest rights impacts the conservation status of stocks in terms of catch, exploitation rate and biomass relative to management targets. We used non‐parametric methods to assess non‐linear relationships and linear regression models to explicitly consider interactions among predictors. Most IQ fisheries consistently met fleet‐wide quota limits (94% of stocks had recent catches below or within 10% of quotas), but only 2/3 of IQ fisheries adhered to sustainable management targets for biomass and exploitation rate (68% of stocks had exploitation rates below or within 10% of targets and 63% of stocks had biomass above or within 10% of biomass targets). Strikingly, when exclusivity of the harvesting privilege was low, exploitation rates depended on whether IQ implementation was industry‐driven (exploitation below targets) or government‐mandated (exploitation above targets). At high levels of exclusivity, exploitation rates converged to just below management targets. Transferability of quota units was associated with stock biomass closer to and slightly above target levels than stocks with non‐transferable quota. However, regional differences had the strongest effect on biomass, suggesting that other management or biological attributes of regional fishery systems have greater influence on marine populations.     

我国近海渔业资源可持续产出基础研究的热点问题

近海具有极其重要的生态服务功能,是众多渔业生物的关键栖息地和优良渔场,支撑着近海渔业资源的补充和可持续生产。在我国,近海渔业提供90%以上的海洋捕捞产量,是我国优质蛋白的重要来源。目前,因过度捕捞直接造成的资源量骤减、及大规模围填海工程、陆源污染和海水养殖等高强度人类活动的加剧,近海资源和环境问题日益凸显,如：富营养化导致的赤潮、水母暴发等生态灾害,湿地减少引起产卵场、育幼场碎片化或功能消失等,使得近海渔业资源的补充和可持续性严重受损。渔业资源的补充过程是海洋生物、物理作用耦合的过程,依赖复杂多样的环境驱动因子来调节和维系可持续渔业生产。而渔业种群早期生活史阶段是其生命中最脆弱、对栖息环境变化的敏感性最强的阶段,小规模环境变化也可能会对其资源补充过程产生剧烈影响。因此,渔业种群早期生活史的关键生境(产卵场、育幼场等)和过程(繁殖发育、存活生长等)对环境变化的响应机制及其资源效应的研究成为海洋生态系统演变和生物资源可持续产出前沿领域的重点和热点。作者在综合国内外相关研究动态和我国近海渔业生态系统存在的突出问题的基础上,展望并分析了关键栖息地的形成和变迁过程与机理、关键资源补充过程与机制、渔业种群对生境变化的适应性响应以及资源效应的综合评估与模型分析等研究热点,期待为我国该研究领域的发展起抛砖引玉之用。     

小型中上层海洋鱼类资源评估研究进展

小型中上层海洋鱼类是重要的渔业资源,目前其捕捞产量约占到全球海洋渔获量二分之一。小型中上层海洋鱼类具有生命周期短、生长速度快、分布不均匀、易受环境因素影响等生物学特点,近年来,一些小型中上层海洋鱼类渔获量出现下降趋势,为保证其资源的可持续利用,对其进行准确的资源评估研究和制定合理有效的管理策略显得尤为重要。以文献计量统计分析为基础,对20多年来应用于小型中上层海洋鱼类资源评估的模型方法以及所需数据类型进行归纳与回顾,同时对模型中重要的参数估计、不确定性来源进行总结。分析认为,由于缺乏完整、准确的生物学信息导致无法对小型中上层海洋鱼类使用传统的资源评估方法进行评估,因此,其资源评估研究仍处在发展阶段。建议今后研究中应开展以下工作:1)努力提高现有模型的评估精度,尽可能考虑更多影响因素; 2)要进行长期系统的渔业资源独立调查; 3)充分利用体长等易获得数据,开发体长结构模型和基于生态系统的评估模型,降低模型选择的局限性。     

Broadbill swordfish: status of established fisheries and lessons for developing fisheries

Guidelines for the assessment and management of developing swordfish fisheries are derived through an examination of five swordfish fisheries. As they develop, swordfish fisheries may be inclined to local depletion around underwater features, such as seamounts and banks. Few nations have applied the precautionary approach in managing their developing swordfish fisheries. Without controls, swordfish fisheries expand geographically and fishing effort increases, often overshooting optimum levels. However, it is difficult to distinguish clear evidence of fishery collapse; modern longliners harvest widely distributed tuna and swordfish and they are able to relocate to distant areas or switch between target species in response to fluctuations in species abundance and price. Furthermore, the wide distribution of swordfish combined with year‐round spawning and high growth rates amongst juveniles probably contribute to the apparent resilience of swordfish stocks to intensive harvesting. Over half the world’s swordfish catch is taken as an incidental catch of longliners fishing for tuna. In several areas, such as the North Atlantic, catch quotas have sometimes caused tuna longline fishers to discard swordfish. Minimum size limits have also resulted in discarding of swordfish in tuna fisheries and in dedicated swordfish fisheries. In addition to weakening the effectiveness of those management measures, bycatch and discarding add to the complexities of managing swordfish fisheries and to uncertainties in assessing the stocks. Longliners that target swordfish often fish at high latitudes where interactions with marine wildlife, such as seabird, are generally more frequent than at low latitudes. Concern over incidental catches of marine wildlife and other species is becoming a driving force in the management of several swordfish fisheries. Fishery management organisations will need to implement management measures to protect non‐target species and gather reliable data and information on the situation by placing observers on boats fishing for swordfish.     

中国主要海洋底层鱼类生物学研究的回顾与展望

回顾了中国海洋主要底层经济鱼类资源生物学的研究历史和科研成果,并重点叙述了带鱼、小黄鱼、大黄鱼和绿鳍马面鲀等重要经济鱼类资源生物学研究概况.概述的内容包括地理种群及其产卵群体的鉴别和划分、生活史型的演变、种群和群体结构、种群数量变动、年龄组成和生长特性、摄食习性、性成熟周期、性腺成熟指数(GSI)、产卵群体生殖力、产卵场、索饵场、越冬场及洄游路线、资源量和渔获量、各种作业渔船的调整及其捕捞力量的限制措施等,并展望了中国海洋底层经济鱼类资源生物学研究的前景.     

Rebuilding global fisheries: the World Summit Goal,costs and benefits

Many of the world’s fish stocks are depleted as a result of overexploitation, pollution and habitat loss. The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) sets a target for fisheries to maintain or restore stocks to levels that can produce the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) by 2015. We assessed the global stock status and found that 68% were at or above the MSY level in 2008 and that the 2015 target is unlikely to be met. We compiled data for eight indicators to evaluate the sustainability of fisheries and the gap to meet the WSSD target. These indicators show that the overall condition of global fisheries is declining, long‐term benefits are being compromised, and pressures on fisheries are increasing despite fisheries policy and management actions being taken by coastal States. We develop a bio‐economic model to estimate the costs and benefits of restoring overfished stocks. Our results show that the global fishing capacity needs to be cut by 36–43% from the 2008 level, resulting in the loss of employment of 12–15 million fishers and costing US$96–358 billion for buybacks. On the other hand, meeting the WSSD goal will increase annual fishery production by 16.5 million tonnes, annual rent by US$32 billion and improve biodiversity and functioning of marine ecosystems. However, progress towards rebuilding has been hindered by an unwillingness or inability to accept the short‐term socio‐economic consequences associated with rebuilding fisheries. Thus, there is a pressing need for integration of rebuilding plans into national political and economic decision‐making.     

蓝色增长背景下的海洋生物生态城市化设想与海洋牧场建设关键技术研究综述

近年来,世界范围内为解决过度捕捞、污染、不可持续的沿岸渔业方式对栖息地、栖息地生态功能以及物种多样性产生的不可逆转破坏,以及传统渔业、养殖业转型难、环境污染大、渔业资源衰退、渔民生计受到威胁等严峻问题,开展了大量的实验与理论研究。其中以FAO提出的"蓝色增长"与我国提出的"海洋牧场"理念框架最具针对性与代表性。伴随着新趋势与理念的产生,相关技术必须及时提供支撑。然而,围绕"蓝色增长"与"海洋牧场"的环境整体性与技术可行性及其关键支撑技术,尚未得到很好的整合与开发。本文通过对学界海洋牧场建设目标、核心工作以及其潜在问题进行梳理,整合目前"蓝色增长"与"海洋牧场"的主流技术,借鉴城市生态学中这一已经发展较为成熟学科的相关技术与体系,提出海洋生物的生态城市化设想及海洋生物生态城镇化设想的海洋牧场选址与规划、生境营造、生物资源增殖与行为控制以及管理四大关键技术,并详细分析了相关技术的实用性与技术整合的实用性,以期为海洋牧场相关研究者提供系统性的技术支撑与参考。     

Understanding fisheries credit systems: potentials and pitfalls of managing catch efficiency

Following implementation in a range of other resource sectors, a number of credit‐like systems have been proposed for fisheries. But confusion exists over what constitutes these nascent ‘fisheries credit’ systems and how they operate. Based on a review of credit systems in other sectors, this study fills this gap by defining how credit systems function and what credits add to prevailing fisheries management. In doing so, we distinguish ‘mitigation’ and ‘behavioural’ fishery credits. Mitigation credits require resource users to compensate for unsustainable catches of target species, by‐catch species or damaging practices on the marine environment by investing in conservation in a biologically equivalent habitat or resource. Behavioural credit systems incentivize fishers to gradually change their fishing behaviour to more sustainable fishing methods by rewarding them with, for instance, extra fishing effort to compensate for less efficient but more sustainable fishing methods. The choice of credit system largely depends on the characteristics of specific fisheries and the management goals agreed upon by managers, scientists and the fishing industry. The study concludes that fisheries credit systems are different but complimentary to other forms of management by focusing on ‘catchability’ or gear efficiency in addition to effort or catch quota, affecting overall economic efficiency by setting specific goals as to how fish are caught. Credit systems therefore incentivize specific management interventions that can directly improve stock sustainability, conserve habitat and endangered species, or decrease by‐catch.     

Biomass management targets and the conservation and economic benefits of marine reserves

The establishment of no‐take marine reserves has been increasingly promoted as a key measure to achieve conservation and sustainability goals in fisheries. Regardless of the wide range of benefits cited, the effectiveness of reserve establishment depends critically on fisheries management outside the reserves. We construct a bioeconomic model of a fishery that allows for the establishment of a no‐take marine reserve and evaluate how the choice of the off‐reserve management target influences the effectiveness of reserve establishment. We evaluate two biomass targets: (i) B_MSY or the biomass that produces the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and (ii) B_MEY or the biomass that maximizes the net present value of the returns to fishing. The parameterized model shows that, for a wide range of scenarios, the fishery will be better off in terms of both conservation and economic objectives when the no‐take reserve is established in conjunction with the B_MEY target rather than with the B_MSY target. Model results further show that the opportunity cost of securing additional fish biomass, in both deterministic and stochastic environments, is lower when the reserve size is increased under the B_MEY target. This finding is important because marine reserves have been established as a key measure to restore depleted fish stocks, and the results suggest that this objective can be achieved with lower economic costs in a B_MEY managed fishery.     

The consequences of density-dependent individual growth for sustainable harvesting and management of fish stocks

Density dependence is likely to act as a regulatory mechanism in fish stocks that are recovering from overfishing. In general, density dependence in fish stocks is assumed to only occur in reproduction and early life stages and is therefore usually modelled as a stock-recruitment relationship. Recent research shows that density dependence can also reduce individual growth in body size later in life. In this study, we show how optimal fishing effort changes with the strength of density dependence in individual growth for four stocks of North Sea flatfish species. Using size-structured population models we show that density dependence arises due to a mechanistic link between the resource availability and life history processes at the individual level. We furthermore show that the stock response to harvesting is either driven by changes in individual reproduction when density dependence in individual growth is weak or by changes in individual growth rate when individual growth is strongly affected by density dependence. These two types or regimes are separated by a sudden shift in dynamics. It is therefore of great importance to account for density dependence in growth when managing fish stocks.     

Profile of a fishery collapse: why mariculture failed to save the large yellow croaker

The large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea), endemic to East Asia was once one of the three top commercial marine fishes of China PR. Heavily exploited since the 1950s, wild stocks were so severely depleted by the 1980s that most individuals subsequently sold originated from hatcheries. After peaking at about 200 000 tonnes in the mid‐1970s, catches of the croaker in China PR declined by over 90% within just 2 decades; according to most decline criteria this would categorize the croaker as “threatened” and management measures, including restocking, were developed. The extensive government‐sponsored mariculture program introduced to address food supply and overfishing in the 1980s, particularly of the croaker, was one of the earliest for marine finfish, not only in China PR, a nation with a rich and highly successful history in aquaculture, but globally. In this first, in‐depth, profile of a key fishery and early mariculture development, we integrate ecological and biological information with the fishing, management, mariculture and economic history to trace the collapse of wild stocks and assess why management and mariculture did not result in wild stock recovery. Evidence strongly suggests that a combination of heavy exploitation of spawning and over‐wintering aggregations, poor management and overfishing pressure were major factors in stock declines, with contributions from pollution, habitat degradation and marine ecosystem shift. Although the croaker proved a highly successful mariculture candidate, with approximately 70 000 tonnes produced in 2005, the highest of any marine fish cultured in China PR, mariculture and restocking have failed to restore croaker stocks and may have, inadvertently, led to biodiversity losses. The detailed history of the croaker is a sobering reminder that successful mariculture, albeit important for food production and livelihoods, is not necessarily a solution to overfishing, and moreover, may have compromised fishery recovery by competing for funds, attention, space, and maybe genetic resources.